Enron subverted within the structure of the rational business Essay

Enron subverted within the structure of the rational business organisation - Essay Example The book by Bethany McLean and Peter Elkin (2005), talks of the way 'the hypothetical future value' of their investments were booked and profits shown for the shareholders to consume. Enron started with Oil pipelines and made it to the broadband and to a host of other services including electric distribution and power supply. While the core competency of the company lies in pipelines, they went into energy trading and broadband systems. They did not work out and build over their core competencies which are advocated by most of the management theorists (C K Prahlad & Gary Hamel, 1990). Enron was bankrupt on January 25th, 2002. Though there were number of fraudulent practices that the company and its executives practiced, it is also true that the society had a leading role to play in the making of the company and its debacle. Supporting an untrue situation arises when the people involved are greedy and tempt a crowd to be greedy as well. Enron became ambitious with the change in leadership and when the mantle was taken over by Jeff Skilling. Enron was ambitious even prior to that under the stewardship of Ken Lay. The growth was steady and the finances proved strong. But with Skilling taking over the leadership of the company, there was a subtle but a sure change in the approach of the management towards making money. ... It was just that Enron did not have time to reorient itself and plan for a classic change and none of the theories of change management seem to have been adopted (Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979). The company's executives were paid using the company shares which were traded freely in the market. The company maintained a high price for their shares and this resulted in their own staff having a larger value added to the share prices of the company. The company started benefiting by insider trading and ensuring that the company continued to have a high share price and the rate of growth of the company was well over 30 to 50% every year. This was too good to believe but then the share holders and the company employees too continued to believe in this performance. The company hid a number of facts about the debt status of the company and failed to show the right numbers on their reports. Hidden in numerous shell companies across the world were all these losses that was used by the senior execu tives of the company to hide and mislead the public and the share holders by giving them wrong information during critical times (Bethany McLean & Peter Elkin, 2005). This has also resulted in a gross violation of law by the company and its board. These hidden facts were so high that the company could not rectify these problems and come out of it unscathed. This in itself led the company to file for its bankruptcy. The senior executives were held for taking the country and its people for a ride and having misled them. The employees of the company and the share holders of the company felt cheated at the end of the game. This debacle led not only the company to bankruptcy but also took most of the senior people into the jail. Organisation Culture Organisation culture of any organisation

Business, its's context and stakeholders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business, its's context and stakeholders - Essay Example The overall growth of continental tourism was double the global average. As foreign tourists enjoyed the increasing number of African states, locals began exploring the beauty of neighboring nations. This booming industry is sure to lead to further economic growth in the region even if the increasing level of consumption of resources and the pressure it puts on the natural environment appear as obstacles. The good news is that these obstacles can be dealt with. Furthermore, the expansion of the African tourism industry makes way for greater understanding between the peoples of the world. The African tourism sector is a large scale enterprise involving an enormous number of stakeholders. In the year 2005, the sector provided 3,877,200 jobs directly and an incredible total of 10,647,000 jobs indirectly. The total travel and tourist revenues expected to be generated in 2005 were $73.6 billion of Gross Domestic Product. In particular, Kenya and Mozambique have seen the most rapid growth in tourist activity in recent years. In 2004 the number of visitors to Kenya increased by twenty six percent and the Kenyan government declared in 2005 that the country has earned more from tourism at this time than ever before. In Mozambique – very popular among South African tourists – tourist activity rose by an impressive thirty seven percent. In North Africa, Egypt experienced a six percent increase, Morocco a five percent increase, and Tunisia an eight percent increase. Things did not go as well for the tourism industry between the years 2002 and 2003. Revenues were massively reduced by terrorism and the wars on terror that began in the year 2001. The tourist hotspots of East Africa, namely Kenya and Tanzania, suffered a number of bomb attacks also. All the same, the African tourism industry is on the rebound. The secretary-general of UN’s World Tourism Organization

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes and Treatment

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes and Treatment Urinary tract is the most common organ to experience infection which occurs from neonates to geriatrics. It account for 8.3 million doctor visit each year and represent the second most common infection in the human body (Sumaira Zareef et al.,2009). By the advancement of age, the attack of UTI increases in men due to prostate enlargement and neurogenic bladder. Recurrent infections are common and will lead to irreversible damage of the kidneys, which result in renal hypertension and renal failure in severe cases. In community, women are more prone to develop UTI and 20% of women experience a single episode of UTI during their lifetime and 3% of women may have more than one episode of UTI per year. Pregnancy also makes them more sensitive to infection. Catheter-associated UTI is a trenchant problem and bacteriuria is found in 5% of catheterised patients (Das R N et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection refers to the presence of microbes in the urinary tract. The frequency of pathogens v aries upon hospitalization, sexual intercourse, and catheterization (Getenet B et al., 2011). About 150 million people are diagnosed for having urinary tract infection with a very high risk of morbidity and mortality (Raza S et al., 2011). Urinary tract infection is found more in women when compared with men the reason may be due to anatomical structure or because of the urothelial mucosa attachment to the muco polysaccharide lining or due to other factors (Tampekar et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection is second only to respiratory tract in acquiring microbial infections (Raza S et al., 2011). Classification of Urinary Tract Infection: Urinary tract infection may be classified as upper urinary tract infection and lower urinary tract infection. According to the infected site, if its bladder then its called cystitis, if the bacterium is in the kidney then its called pyelonephrites, if its in urine the term bacteriuria is used (Getenet B et al., 2011). Manifestation of genitourinary tract infection vary from mild symptomatic cystitis to pyelonephrites and finally to septicaemia. Pyelonephrites are the sequelae of untreated or inadequately treated lower UTI and the most common cause of hospital admission during pregnancy and which lead to preterm labour(Jamie et al .,2002). Urinary tract infections are further divided into complicated and uncomplicated infections. Uncomplicated infections are those with no prior instrumentations and complicated infections are those that have done instrumentations such as indwelling, urethral catheters and it include structural and functional abnormalities (Getnet B et al., 2011). Again UTI is classified as community acquired and hospital acquired (nosocomial). In community acquired UTI single species of bacteria is found and the organisms are Escherichia coli, P.mirabilis, Pseudomonas. Hospital acquired UTI is often due to multi drug resistant strain in this similar organism but greater preponderance of Streptococci or Klebsiella is seen (Sujit K Chaudhuri., 2001). Defnition of the precise terms in Urinary Tract Infection: Significant bacteriuria It is defined as the presence of 100000 bacteria per mL of urine. Asymptomatic bacteriuria It is defined as significant bacteriuria in infected patients with the absence of symptoms Cystitis It is defined as a syndrome of frequency, dysuria, urgency in which the infection is limited to bladder and urethra. Urethral syndrome In Urethral syndrome a conventional pathogen is present and its a syndrome of dysuria, frequency in the absence of significant bacteriuria. Acute pyelonephrites It is an acute infection in one or both the kidneys. Chronic pyelonephrites It may be due to the continuous excretion of bacteria from kidney or the recurring infection of the renal cell or due to a specific pathology of both kidneys. Relapse and reinfection Relapse is defined has the recurrence of infection by the same organism which intiated original infection. Reinfection is defined as the recurrence of infection by a new organism (Roger walker et al., 2003). Several studies have demonstrated geographical variability of Pathogens occurrence among UTI inpatient and outpatient is limited by the predominance of gram negative organisms. The most frequent pathogen isolated is Escherichia coli which accounts for about 50% to 90% of all uncomplicated infections (Tampekar et al., 2006). In complicated urinary tract infection and hospitalized patients, organisms such as Enterococcus faecalis and highly resistant gram negative rods including Pseudomonas are most common (Getenet B et al., 2011). Aetiology and microbiology: The most common causative organism of uncomplicated UTI is Escherichia coli accounting more than 85% cases, followed by staphylococcus saprophyticus (coagulase-negative staphylococcus) accounting to nearly 15%. The pathogens in complicated UTI or nosocomical infections are Escherichia coli accounting 50%, Proteus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococci and Enterococci (Barbara et al., 2008). A very rare cause of urinary tract infection includes anaerobic bacteria and fungi and sometimes viruses which are detected by culture and nucleic acid amplification method. Abnormalities of the urinary tract such congenital anomalies of ureter, renal stones, enlargement of prostrate in men are other causes for urinary tract infection (Roger walker et al., 2003). Pathophysiology of UTI: (Barbara et al., 2008) The urinary tract includes two pairs of kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra. Urinary tract infection are defined as infections at any level of the urinary tract which include, Upper urinary tract infection (Pyelonephrites) Lower urinary tract infection ( Cystitis, Urethritis) Combination of above two The bacteria causing UTIs originate from bowel flora of the host. It can be acquired via three possible routes Ascending Haematogenous Lymphatic pathways In females the short length of the urethra and proximity to the perirectal area lead to the colonization of bacteria. The organisms enter the bladder from urethra and multiply and can ascend the ureters and ascend to the kidneys. Factors that determine the development of urinary tract infections are The size of the inoculums Virulence of the microorganisms Competency of the natural host defense mechanisms. Important virulence factors of bacteria are their ability to adhere to urinary epithelial cells by fimbriae. Others include haemolysin, a cytotoxic protein produced by bacteria which lyses a large range of cells including erythrocytes, monocytes, and polymorph nuclear leukocytes. Clinical presentation: Pain or burning when you using bathroom Fever, tiredness or shakiness An urge to use the bathroom often and often Pressure in the lower belly Urine that smells bad and looks cloudy or reddish Nausea or back pain Lower urinary tract infection Dysuria, urgency, nocturia, Increased frequency of urination Upper urinary tract infection Fever, flank pain, vomiting malaise. Clinical investigation: (Roger walker et al., 2003) Laboratory diagnosis is successful when an uncontaminated urine sample is obtained for microscopy and culture. The respective patients need to instruct to produce mid stream urine sample (MSU) and then its collected into a sterile aliquot and then transferred into the specimen pot and finally is submitted to the laboratory. Dipsticks It is a rapid testing for urinary blood, nitrites, proteins and leukocyte esterase. The colour changes are assessed. Microscopy It is the first step in the diagnosis of urinary tract infections. Urine is placed on a slide and then covered with a cover slip and is examined under lens 40x. Culture The patients urine is streaked in agar medium and is incubated for 24 hours at 370C and identify the single bacterial species which as initiated the particular infection. Treatment of UTI: Non specific treatment Urinary tract infected patients are advised to drink a lot of fluids, this practice is on the basis that the bacteria is removed by frequent bladder emptying. Urinary analgesics such sodium citrate which will alkanize urine is used with antibiotics as an adjunct therapy (Roger walker et al., 2003). Pharmacological treatment of UTI Antibiotics are commonly used in Urinary tract infections. The modes of action of antibiotics may be, Inhibition of Bacterial Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibition of Cytoplasmic Membrane Function Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibition of Protein Synthesis Control of Microbial Enzymes Substrate Competition with an Essential Metabolite (Barar F. S. K., 2007) UTI are mainly treated with broad spectrum Cephalosporins, Fluroquinolones, and Aminoglycosides. Cephalosporins are cell wall inhibitors which are commonly used for treating urinary tract infections caused by Gram negative organisms. It include Cefotaxime, Cephradine, Ceftazidime etc. Flouroquinolones act by inhibiting the activity of DNA gyrase and topo isomerase which are the enzymes needed for bacterial DNA replication and it includes Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Enoxacin. Aminoglycoside act by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis it include Gentamycin, Kanamycin, Amikacin etc (Farhat Ullah et al., 2009). Oral therapy in urinary tract infection is Sulphonamides example (TMP-SMX) PenicillinS which include Ampicillin, Amoxicillin- clavulanic acid. Cephalosporins example Cephalexin, Cephadrine. Tetracyclines example Doxycycline, Minocycline. Fluroquinolones example Levofloxacin, Nitrofurantine. Parentral therapy is done with Carbapenems example Imipenem-Cilastatin. Aminglycosides example Amikacin, Gentamycin (Barbara et al., 2008). 2.9 Treatments of infections of urinary tract: (S.D Seth et al., 1999) Treatment of Lower Urinary Tract Infections Single-dose Trimethoprim -Sulphamethoxazole (400mg+2g) are used to treat acute uncomplicated episode of cystitis. Acute urethritis can be treated with Doxycycline 100 mg twice a day for 7 days. Single dose therapy must be restricted in patients where symptoms are present for less than 10 days. In more complicated cases seven days therapy with antibiotics should be given and alternatively broader spectrum antibiotics are used. Treatment of upper Urinary Tract Infections 10-14 day course of Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole, Trimethoprim in a single dose, Cephalosporins, or Aminoglycoside gives adequate therapy. If recurrence occurs then the patient should be investigated for calculi and other urologic disease. Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections during Pregnancy Acute cystitis during pregnancy is treated with Amoxicillin, Nitrofurantoin,or Cephalosporin for 4 days. Acute pyelonephtites is managed generally with Cephalosporin or extended spectrum Penicillin. Treatment for Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections In this a drug capable of achieving high tissue concentration is needed.7-14 days high treatment is given. Treatment of Asymptomatic Infections Asymptomatic bacteriuria is confirmed by a minimum of two positive cultures. An oral therapy for 1 week with the most sensitive agent is given primarly. Treatment for Catheter Associated Urinary Tract Infection Asymptomatic bacteriuria in catheterized patients is not treated if they are not at a high risk of sepsis. Treatment for Prostatitis The pathogen found in this is mainly Gram Negative Bacilli. Trimethoprim- Sulphamethoxazole, Erythromycin, Ciprofloxacin can penetrate prosthetic tissue and are mostly effective. If Cocci are found cloxacillin may be given. Chemoprophylaxis of Urinary Tract Infections It is indicated to patients with a very frequent symptomatic infection. A single dose Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole (80mg TMP+400 mg SMZ) or Nitrofurantoin (50 mg) is found to be effective. Drug resistance: (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Barar F.S.K 2010). Bacteria are said to be resistant to an antibiotic if the maximal level of that antibiotic which can be tolerated by the host does not alter the bacterial growth. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics may be either Natural or Acquired. Natural resistance Natural resistance is genetically determined and it depends upon the absence of a metabolic process which is affected by the respective bacteria. Acquired resistance Acquired resistance is the resistance which is seen in a previously sensitive bacterial pathogen and it involves a very stable genetic change which is heritable from one generation to another generation. The common mechanism is by mutation, adaptation, or by the development of multiple drug resistance which is as a result of transfer of genetic material from bacteria to bacteria by transformation, transduction, or conjugation. Microbial species which are normally responsive to a particular drug may develop more virulent, resistant strains due to, Genetic alterations Spontaneous mutations of DNA DNA transfer of drug resistance B) Altered expression of proteins in organism Modification of target site Decreased accumulation Enzymtic Inactivation A) Genetic alterations Acquired antibiotic is due to the temporary or permanent alteration of organisms genetic information. Spontaneous mutation of DNA Chromosomal alteration occurs by insertion or substitution of one or more nucleotides within the genome. The mutation may be lethal to the cells. If the cells survive it will replicate and transmit its mutated properties to other cells. DNA transfer of drug resistance It occurs due to DNA transfer from one bacterium to other. Resistance gene are plasmid mediated and can be incorporated into host bacterial DNA. B) Altered expression of proteins in organism It occurs by variety of mechanisms, such as a lack of or alteration in target site, increased efflux of the drug or by the expression of antibiotic inactivating enzymes. Modification of target sites The change in the antibiotic target site through mutation can lead to resistance. Example, S pneumonia resistance to beta lactums involves alteration in one or more of major bacterial penicillin binding protein. Decreased accumulation If the drug is unable to attain access to the site of its action to kill the organisms resistance confers. Enzymic inactivation The ability to destroy antibiotic agent by the pathogen can confer resistance. Antibiotic inactivating enzymes include a) Beta lactamases (Hydrolytically inactivate beta lactum ring of penicillin) b) Acetyl transferases (Transfer an acetyl group to antibiotics) c) Esterases (Hydrolyze the lactone ring of macrolides) Antibiotic tolerance: The term antibiotic tolerance is used when the antibiotic merely inhibits its multiplication and growth but no longer kills the microbial pathogen. Tolerant microbial pathogen starts to grow after antibiotics are stopped. Cross resistance: It is defined as a phenomenon in which bacteria resistant to one drug is resistant to another drug to which the bacteria is not exposed before. Examples are Neomycin and Kanamycin. Prevention of drug resistance: (K.D Tripathy 2006) Indiscriminate and prolonged use of antibiotics should be stopped it will minimise resistant strains so there will be less chance to preferentially propagate Rapidly acting and narrow spectrum antibiotics should be preferred. Broad spectrum is used when a proper one cannot be determined When prolonged therapy is needed use combination of Anti microbial agents Treatment should be intensively done for the infections by organism which develops resistance Example, Staphylococcus aureus. Evaluation of urinary tract pathogen and principles of antibiotic dosing: (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Sharma H L et al 2011) The traditional way for the evaluating urinary tract pathogens is urine culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing. The major drawback of current microbiological analysis is time lapse of more than a day (Vesna Ivancic et al., 2008). The five important characteristic which influence frequency of dosing of all antibiotics are, Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) It is the lowest concentration of antibiotic that inhibit bacterial growth. To have effective therapy the clinically obtainable antimicrobial concentration should be greater than MIC. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) It is the lowest concentration of antibiotic agent that results in 99.9% decline in colony count after incubation. Concentration dependent killing effect [CDKE] Antibiotics are most effective when higher blood concentration is reached periodically. These bactericidal antibiotics are said to be concentration -dependent killing (CDK). In drugs whose killing action is CDK the extent and rate of killing increases with increase in drug concentration. Examples Amino glycosides, Fluroquinolones. Time dependent killing effect [TDKE] Antibiotics are most effective when the blood concentrations are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration for the maximum long duration possible. These bactericidal antibiotics exhibit time -dependent killing (TDK). In drugs whose killing action is (TDK) the activity of antibiotics continue as long as serum concentration are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration. Examples Vancomycin, Beta Lactums. Post -antibiotic effect [PAE] A suppression of bacterial growth which is persistent after a brief exposure to antibiotics agents is said to be post-antibiotic effect. In post antibiotic effect the suppression or inhibition of bacterial growth is found even when the bacterial agent is no longer present or its concentration is very less than MIC. Examples of drugs which show significant PAE are Tetracycline, Amino glycosides. The aetiology of UTI and the antibiotic susceptibility of uropathogens have been changing over the past decade. The extensive uses of antibiotics have invariably resulted in the development of resistance which has become major problem in recent years. Antibiotic treatment which are of shorter duration than required, and the treatment administered without considering antibiotic and organism sensitivity as resulted in more resistance in bacterial strains (Mohammed Akram et al., 2007), (Eshwarappa M et al., 2011). To find out the most effective empirical treatment, investigating the epidemiology of UTI is a fundamental approach to guide the expected interventions (Getnet B et al., 2011). Since the distribution of microbial pathogens and their susceptibility is variable regionally and it is necessary to have a knowledge of uropathogens and sensitivity in a particular setting (Muhammed Naeem et al., 2010). The selection of antimicrobial agents require the following knowledge, The organisms identity The organisms susceptibility to particular agent The site of the infection Patient factors The safety of the agent The cost of therapy However, in critically ill patients need immediate treatment i.e. the therapy is initiated soon after specimens for laboratory analysis have been obtained before the culture result and selection of drug is influenced by the site of infection and patients history or by the association of particular organism Prevention and prophylaxis: (Roger Walker et al). Cranberry juice: It has been thought beneficial for the prevention of urinary tract infections. The benefit of drinking cranberry juice instead of antibiotics has reduced resistance of bacteria. Antibiotic prophylaxis: It is indicated to patients who are having reinfections. If the reinfection is after sexual intercourse then after intercourse a single dose of antibiotics is taken. In other cases low dose is beneficial. Patient counselling of UTI: Drinking plenty of clear liquids will keep urine diluted. Good personal hygiene following urination and bowel movements. Cleaning self front to back from vagina to anus. Urinate frequently to wash out bacteria that may be present, avoid holding urine for prolonged periods of time. Urinate after intercourse to wash out bacteria that may have been introduced into the urethra. Avoid wearing tight jeans, wet bathing suites. Present scenario of UTI: New studies reveal that the risk of urinary tract infection is high among boys who has not circumcised and had a visible urethral meatus. Another line of UTI research has indicated that women who are non-secretors of certain blood group antigens may be more prone to recurrent urinary tract infections because the cells lining the vagina and urethra may allow bacteria to attach more easily. Scientists have worked out an effective new approach to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) by dumping antibiotics. It involves so-called FimH antagonists, which are non antibiotic compounds and would not contribute to the growing problem of pathogens resistant to antibiotics. Barriers to integration: Refugees in new countries Barriers to integration: Refugees in new countries Background 1.1 Settlement of Refugees in Australia Australia has been settling refugees for more than a century. As per official records, settlement history begins in 1839, marking the arrival of Lutherans. Nevertheless, Australia’s modern approach to refugee settlement began with a new national refugee policy in 1977. It has, now, become a designated resettlement country for refugees and it receives a designated number of refugees on annual basis as on the agreement with UNHCR. According to the best estimates available, 2009-10 was the year in which Australia, since becoming an independent nation, passed the 750,000 mark in its intake of refugees and humanitarian entrants. In recent years, the incidents of persecution, conflict, generalized violence and human rights violation have significantly increased in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, Syria, Iran, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and the border between Sudan and South Sudan. Surprisingly Australia has reduced its Refugee and Humanitarian Program to 13, 750 places while there is a considerable gap between resettlement needs and available places worldwide. At this point, it is important to acknowledge current refugee settlement issues in Australia. In general, settlement issues fall into four main categories as follows: In addition to these main categories, if we go further deeper into the context, it is obvious to see another horizon of challenges fall into following areas: Family and Youth Legal and Financial Community Relations Securing a meaningful employment is a truly challenging task among refugees mainly because of their lack of knowledge about Australian work place culture, no prior work experience in Australia, inadequate services to support employment transitions, discrimination, racism, lack of English proficiency, inability to get access to job market, and problems in recognizing overseas skills, experience and qualification. Finding an affordable house becomes a serious issue due to the competition in private rental market. Renting and retaining the house have equal consideration as finding the house. Discrimination and racism appear again as opposing factors. Moreover, financial hardship of refuges, size of families, their lack of Australian rental history, and unawareness about tenancy rights and responsibilities can be said as reasons for housing difficulties during their settlement. Educational barriers are different system of education, different languages, inadequate induction and support, high illiteracy among refugee communities, disruption of schooling for young people and enrollment based on age rather than knowledge. Inconsistency in policies and practices results in ignoring needs of young people with disrupted education. Health issues are normally caused by family separation, their prior experience and trauma, lack of social networks and consequent isolation. All of the above issues (Employment, Housing and Education) negatively affect the health and mental wellbeing of these communities. We can notice a great demand for interpreters in health sector since they are often required in counseling and consultation. Integrational conflicts and cultural shocks attempt to damage family relations and people’s values. For an example, younger ones adapt more readily and it leads to misunderstanding and confusion within families. Parenting becomes more challenging. Cultural clashes affect spousal relationships in a negative way and ends up in separation and divorces. Domestic violence and family breakdowns seem to be common in refugee communities. On the other hand, there are serious concerns about unaccompanied minors and single mothers with many children. When it comes to youth, due to their prior refugee experience, limited education or work experience, cultural dislocation and loss of established social networks lead them to frustration. Resulting frustration has its own dangerous consequences such as involving in illegal activities. Most of the refugees who come from war torn countries see the police as an oppressive authority. This viewpoint often creates misunderstanding between police and refugee communities. Racism does its part to damage this relationship worse than we assume. Refugees are in need for legal advices regarding their visa process, financial arrangements and documentations. Cultural incompetency of legal advisers and refugee’s lack of knowledge of legal systems can be highlighted under this area. Community relations between refugee communities and host communities are influenced by myth about refugees, cultural misunderstanding, discrimination and racism. These factors prevent both communities to create wider interactions for better understanding between them. Without a positive cooperation from local community, it is difficult to succeed in settlement. All these main categories and areas of settlement issues repeatedly highlight a gap between refugee communities and local community. And a detachment between refugees and local systems is also visible. These gap and detachment practically become great barriers for a smooth integration and successful settlement of refugees in Australia. 1.3 Problem Analysis Based on our background research on the settlement of refugees in Australia, we developed our initial problem tree. It was used as a draft during expert consultations. Its insightfulness helped us finding missing pieces if information and guided us to further research. Obviously the gap between refugee communities and local community together with local systems directly or either indirectly poses challenges to almost every problem we identified. Therefore, we identified community isolation as our focal problem. Consultation with refugee experts who have refugee backgrounds as well as remarkable experience from working with refugees settling in Victoria, particularly in South East of Melbourne, gave us clear picture of current settlement issues. Some of the case studies based on City of Greater Dandenong showed us a multiple dimensions of already identified problems. Our finalized problem tree, after sorting out the problems, is given below. Public misunderstanding was identified a crucial factor to discrimination. Some of the politicians and media play an important role in creating a negative image for refugees. For an example, if a refugee is accused to be involved in a crime scene, they flash the news by highlighting the background of this particular refugee community and paint a red color on the rest of the community without considering the consequences. In fact, these sort of careless actions widen the gap between local community and refugee communities. It is evident to see lack of confidence among refugees mainly due to cultural alienation, past refugee experience, language incompetency and lack of knowledge of local context and local systems. Considering the cultural alienation, it is happened to be the outcome of difference between the unique characteristics of different cultures. Australians can be identified with individualism, lack of social cohesion and materialism whereas most of the refugee communities can be characterized as collectivist societies. Mutual understanding is necessary to promote better understanding of these differences and that requires considerably a long time. Among the effects of community isolation, identity crisis is something which has profound effect even on other effects either directly or indirectly. But, normally, it doesn’t get enough attention from settlement programs. Acculturation means that members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of a dominant group. It can be reciprocal but in case of refugees it is only one way. It causes loss of separate ethnic identification. People feel a sense of powerlessness as a result. Psychosocial repercussions heavily damage human personality. As a result, refugees look at perceived threats, it can be either real or even imagined, in their lives and recognize it may require resources we don’t have. It includes threats to their social status, social esteem, acceptance within the society and threat to their self-worth. In long time, all these effects create social discord which is not good for both local community and refugee communities. 1.4 Objective Analysis At the end of the objective analysis, we came up with positive results, but not for each of the identified problem statements. We left a question mark for racism as it can’t be directly addressed. Nobody is going to accept that they are racist. Therefore, we decided to better leave it alone in the objective tree and reduce its impact indirectly from promoting public understanding. Objective tree was adjusted with some rearrangements with optimistic conditions. Alternative analysis pointed out the ongoing programs and projects by AMES, state government and other service providers in the area of employment, housing, language, education and future promises to improve current refugee and humanitarian programs. At this point, it is important to acknowledge Community Guides Program, Luv-A-Duck project and Ucan3 Youth Program of AMES as well as its support to social enterprises such as Sorghum Sisters, Cultural Cooks and Global Cafà ©, and support for community initiatives. We noticed lack of attention on the refugees’ rights and their cultural validity. It was finally decided to promote community engagement by increasing the level of confidence among refugees and creating social embrace with public understanding. Community Engagement will create cultural validity for refugee communities by providing them greater opportunities for social networking. Mutual understanding between local community and refugee communities would have positive impact in long-term and that would consequently bring social harmony in the City of Greater Dandenong.

Education Is Life Iself Essay

Once John Dewey said, â€Å"Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.† It is quite difficult, even impossible to contend for the statement. We should clearly understand that education is a long process which lasts for the whole life. More than that life is the best teacher we might ever have. In other words, we can denote that we live educating ourselves and educate ourselves for living. First of all, it is interesting to note that the notions â€Å"education† and â€Å"life† can be regarded as identical ones. The matter is that speaking about education we keep in mind that it is not just a period of life but a lifelong process of learning. As Albert Einstein once noticed, â€Å"Intellectual growth should commence at birth and cease only at growth.† Keeping to the point it should be also mentioned that education can be given and taken anywhere – at school, university or home. It doesn’t matter. However, there is no better teacher than life itself. Nobody can dispute it. People learn much deeper and more effectively through their own actions and mistakes. Life motivates, directs, controls and evaluates us. Life teaches us. What is more important, life is always fair towards us. That is why we consider life to be the best teacher. To sum up, it should be said that every person has his own attitude towards education. For some people education seems to be an obligation, even a burden, for others it is the meaning of life, for the rest it can be a means to achieve some higher goals†¦ but there is no doubt, education is the most powerful tool that has a certain impact on our lives. The other question is how to use this tool. Nukhayeva Kamila

The United States Government and Out Land Essay - 1467 Words

Mr. Uriah Muhammad The United States Government and Out Land nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The United States government is known to give its citizens great advise with much care and concern. With this being known, many people come to the conclusion that United States citizens can faith in the government when it comes to making crucial decisions. Terry Tempest Williams is not one of these people. In â€Å"The Clan of the One-Breasted Women†, Williams gives her views on the government conducting nuclear tests in Utah. In contrast, in â€Å"America’s Energy Plan in Action: Bearing Witness,† an article Williams contributed to Orion magazine and OrionOnline, Williams speaks on issues containing actions of the government drilling for oil and natural†¦show more content†¦The United States of America case. It started off fairly pleasing but ended in ruin. She states in line thirty-two that it was the first time that the federal court determined that nuclear testing had been the cause of cancers, but this landmark ruling was no t permanent. In line thirty-eight, she says, â€Å"In April 1987, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals overturned Judge Jenkins’s ruling on the ground, that the United Sates was protected from the suit by the legal doctrine of sovereign immunity, a centuries-old idea from England in the days of absolute monarchs.† What happens next is probably what sent Williams over the edge. Williams states tat the Supreme Court refused to review the Appeals Court decision in January 1988. Williams also shows her sarcastic tone with the quote, â€Å"The King can do no wrong.† (Williams 128) Williams ends â€Å"The Clan of One-Breasted Women† with the telling of her dream. She dreamt that women from everywhere came together to talk, sing, and dance, somewhat like prayer rituals. There were bombs being tested two miles away from where they were gathering. They claimed that the ridges in the desert were stretch marks from these nuclear testing. In other words, they are saying that the nuclear testing was weakening the land. The women grew restless and could not take it anymore. They came to conclusion that something had to be done because their land and future children were at stake. Williams and nine other women manage to trespass ontoShow MoreRelatedA Backstabbing Country1487 Words   |  6 Pagesat your door. You open it to see that it is a general of the United States army. He tells you that you must leave your home immediately and move to a piece of land that the government has assigned you. If you refuse, the military will have to interfere. All of your tight -knitted community members have heard the same message within the last week. This, in a less modern sense, is what happened to the Northwest Indians of the United States in the late 1800s to the early 1900s. Although the relocationRead MoreAftermath of the Mexican War and the â€Å"Peace† Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo1218 Words   |  5 PagesIn United States history textbooks, the chief significance of the Mexican American war was territorial and political. For $15 million, the nation added 500,000 square miles of western lands from Kansas to the Pacific, encompassing what is now California, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Utah and Colorado. The war also re-ignited disputes over slavery in the western territory. But for the regions Mexicans, the wars consequences were monumentally disastrous. When the treaty ending the war wasRead MoreIndian Betrayal Essay example1211 Words   |  5 Pagesof the United States, there are many instances and issues concerning race and ethnicity that shape the social classes that make up the United States today. 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Americans believed that NativeRead MoreIndian Removal Act796 Words   |  4 PagesIndian Removal (Zinn Chapter 7) Once the white men decided that they wanted lands belonging to the Native Americans (Indians), the United States Government did everything in its power to help the white men acquire Indian land. The US Government did everything from turning a blind eye to passing legislature requiring the Indians to give up their land (see Indian Removal Bill of 1828). Aided by his bias against the Indians, General Jackson set the Indian removal into effectRead MoreRemoval of Indian Tribes in 17001389 Words   |  6 Pagesagree that Georgia and the United States were justified in forcing the Indian tribes to leave their homeland and move to the Oklahoma territory. I believe the Tribes were taken advantage of and abused by the states whenever possible. In 1971 the Cherokee tribe was in the process of making treaties with United States. The state of Georgia recognized the Cherokee tribe as a nation allowing them to make their own laws and follow their native customs. In the late 1700’s their land started to be invadedRead MoreManifest Destiny Essay1207 Words   |  5 Pagesand self-government to all. In the eyes of the Americans, it meant that it was Gods will that Americans expand their territory from coast to coast. This idea of Manifest Destiny strongly influenced the attitudes of the people and the policies of the U.S. government. Americans believed that they were bringing God, technology and civilization to the lands in the west. What they brought, in fact, was death, disease and wars to the Native Americans and Mexicans who occupied these lands. Americans

The British Enlightenment And The American Revolution

The American Revolution was a product of the British Enlightenment as well as both American and British history. The Enlightenment was age of innovation taking place during the 17th and 18th centuries. During this period there were great advancements in science that pushed back religious superstitions, as well as developments in economics and political thinking. (lecture) The British Enlightenment specifically had a large impact on the American Revolution with key figures such as John Locke. His works including, Two Treatises of Government (1690), were highly influential upon the founding fathers of the United States. Historical events must also be understood as impacting the revolution as the colonists drew upon their past experiences to†¦show more content†¦In this way the colonists saw the British not holding up to their end of the social contract. Locke and others present this idea that an agreement exists between a people and their government in which the people permit the government to rule in return for the government guarding the people s natural rights. Locke argued that if the government does not protect the people’s rights it is their duty to revolt. The colonists did not see the British as protecting their rights and thus used the social contract theory as justification for the American Revolution. Several key figures in the American Revolution are prime examples of the impact of the British Enlightenment. These include Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson who both contributed significantly to American Enlightenment thought. Franklin was both a great political mind and a scientist or inventor. His inventions include the Franklin Stove and the Lightning Rod. His political mind on the other hand was put to use for many years trying for reconciliation between the American colonies and the British homeland. Franklin was committed to the British Empire and admired it for most of his life. This is shown in his acceptance of the sugar acts because he believed the British would do no harm to their colonies and would not impose on them more than they could bear (Wood 107). He clearly did not understand the colonists’ views on taxation. Further his proposition instead of the stamp act, because â€Å"it [would have]Show MoreRelatedCauses Of The American Revolution1202 Words    |  5 PagesThroughout history many revolutions took place, ranging from the unremarkable to a truly memorable, as the French revolution, the American Revolution, and the Bolshevik Revolution, but American revolution took place in 1775-1783. The revolution was different from other revolution because of growing tensions between residents of Great Britain’s 13 North American colonies and the colonial government because American revolution was not like the others. This revolution was not like the others becauseRead MoreRevolutions: The Road to Independence Essay877 Words   |  4 PagesRevolution is a significant change of control or authority within a governmental setting. Most Revolutions are caused by political, social, and economic disputes. Consequently, the common matter for the American, French, and Latin America revolutions emerged to gain their own independence. In North America, the colonists put emphasis on their independence from Great Britain and established a new republic. In France, protesters abolished the authority of France and reorganized the French society,Read MoreEnlightenment And The Great Awakening814 Words   |  4 Pages In the 18th century, Enlightenment and the Great Awakening changed the idea of freedom for the colonists. The Great Awakening was a time of religious revival in the colonies. Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in the 18th century which emphasized economic and political freedom. American and British tensions grew in this time period due to Britain wanting America to be under the king’s control. Enlightenment, the Great Awakening, the Founding Fathers, and different social groups changed theRead MoreThe American Revolution And The War For Independence779 Words   |  4 PagesThe year 1775 marked the beginning of the American Revolution or, to the colonists, â€Å"The War for Independence.† The American Revolution did not happen by itself but past conflicts such as the seven years war provo ked the future event of the American Revolution. The seven year war was fought between the Thirteen Colonies and the French Empire as well as Native American allies, over territory in America. Before the seven year war, the British government proposed the colonists to pay for protectionRead MoreThe Main Reason The American Revolution Was Caused Was1395 Words   |  6 Pages The main reason the American Revolution was caused was because the tax of the colonists by the British, in which led the end of the seven-year war of the French and Indian. This issue was more engaged in the North more than the South because of their politician differences. The people that were business leaders, politicians, etc, did not like the situation that was going on they had their particular economy and political interests in enlightenment just to get people the big masses,Read MoreThe Enlighment and the Great Awakening Influence on the American Revolution741 Words   |  3 PagesBoth the Enlightenment and the Great awakening caused the colonists to alter their views about government, the role of government, as well as society at large which ultimately and collectively helped to motivate the colonists to revolt against England. The Enlightenment was vital in almost every part of the founding of America, which included everything from government, to politics itself, as well as religion. Many of the ideas from the Enlightenment and the Great Awakening shaped our country asRead MoreThe American Revolution1259 Words   |  6 Pages The American Revolution, one of the chief events in U.S. history, was an event that had its origins planted long before the fighting began. With the time period of the Enlightenment overlapping that of the revolution, ideals of society and humanity flooded colonial society. Although some may argue that the acts of the British were for the colonists’ well-being, I will explain why they were in fact hindrances. Colonists decided to ov erhaul the system of monarchy because they felt that it did notRead MoreThe American And French Revolutions1517 Words   |  7 PagesThe American French Revolutions The American Revolution and French Revolution were unique in world history because they used the ideas of freedom and equality from the Enlightenment, but understood them differently at the same time. Both revolutions occurred around the same time- the 18th Century, the American Revolution began on the 4th of July when Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence (Dr. Taylor). The French Revolution then follows in 1789, provoked by â€Å"...a greater demandRead MoreThe Enlightenment Principles Of Rationalism And Universal Rights1684 Words   |  7 PagesThe Enlightenment period was a revolutionary time where scientific and rational thought became the chief values of society. Thinkers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were signposts of this era, inspiring populations locally and abroad. This revolution of ideas led to political and societal upheaval throughout the Western world. This essay will argue that the Enlightenment principles of rationalism and univers al rights shaped modern Europe and North America through the rejection of absolutistRead MoreRadicalism and Revolutions Essay1112 Words   |  5 PagesThroughout history, revolutions have started because of new ideas that change thinking and disrupt what has come to be considered normal. During 1700s, the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions were no exception. The Enlightenment ideas that were spreading around this time lead people of these three nations to question their ruling elites, and to begin considering breaking free. Of these three, though, no one revolt can be seen as more radical when compared to the other two. Each was faced with

Comparing the Books a Raisin in the Sun and the Great...

There are many similarities involving the main characters in the books The Great Gatsby and A Raisin in the Sun. For example, they are similar because their entire lives revolve around money. Also, they define their lives by determining what social class they live in. Another main likeness between the two is that they reside in large cities. Which leads to problems that people in rural communities wouldn’t have. On the other hand, they also have major differences. One is wealthy, the other lives in poverty. Jay Gatsby lives in a paradise-like community in New York, while Walter Younger and his family live in the slums of Chicago. Another difference between them is their race. Jay, being a white, is a well respected individual in his part†¦show more content†¦These examples support the idea that both Jay Gatsby’s and The Younger Family’s minds revolve around money. Social classes play a massive part in society today, just like it has throughout history. Mr. Gatsby, being an entrepreneur and bootlegger, was an upper-class individual with tons of wealth. Because he was so wealthy, he could afford a mansion and an expensive car (unheard of in the 1930’s). Respect came in droves for him because of his social class. He had parties for which some he did not even attend, he took people out to fancy restaurants, and many other things that people of that class do. Walter younger and the rest of his family were poor nonetheless. Because of their life in poverty, they are part of the lower class in the city of Chicago. Although they have a few friends, such as Bobo, they are not of the same â€Å"caliber† of the friends Jay Gatsby has the pleasure of knowing. Because of the Youngers’ poverty, they also have certain conflicts with people of their same social class. For example, Walter was â€Å"in on a great deal† with an busine ssman. Although it sounded like an amazing deal with amazing wealth in store for him, Walter was cheated out of the deal and was left without the ten thousand dollars his father left him. Living in big cities also lets problems arise. As seen in The Great Gatsby, Nick Carraway is subject to many problems people living in rural parts of the country wouldn’t have such as family issues and unnecessary drama. In A Raisin inShow MoreRelatedThe American Dream By Lorraine Hansberry1741 Words   |  7 Pageseven during the beginning of our wonderful country, and it was relatively the same as it is now. More than a century after the Declaration of Independence, the American Dream was still alive and well. In the 1950s, Lorraine Hansberry wrote A Raisin in the Sun. This play is about a financially troubled African-American family and the problems they face as they try to achieve all of their versions of the American Dream. The play itself is centered around the American Dream and how hard it can be to

Cultural Aging Free Essays

This paper is designed to illustrate a cultural or ethnic group of my choosing and how they feel about the aging process. Also, to give detail of their background, their perspective and how it coordinates with the group, how they feel it effects aging on the older population, the elderly role in this cultural or ethnic group and and historical information in the group perspective if they immigrated in the United States. Within my findings I found out that African American woman (in particular) are concerned with aging but are not as concerned as Caucasian women. We will write a custom essay sample on Cultural Aging or any similar topic only for you Order Now Being that African Americans have more melanin in their skin, wrinkles are not as common at the age of 65 as it would be of women who are the same age but of the Caucasian race. For my paper on the perspectives, I chose to research African Americans and take a look in to how they perceive aging, how they feel it effects aging on the older population, their roles and if there are any historical changes in their perspective. Most African Americans are the descendants of captive Africans held in the United States from 1619 to 1865. Blacks from the Caribbean whose ancestors immigrated, or who immigrated to the United States, also traditionally have been considered African American, as they share a common history of predominantly central Africans roots or west African, the middle passage and slavery. In the past, it was these people who were referred to and self-identified collectively as the American Negro, who now generally consider themselves African Americans. The history of African Americans are highlighted and celebrated annually in the United States during February, which is respectfully known as Black History month, and their history is the sole focus that time. Others who some times are Americans who descended from slaves, are referred to as African Americans, and who may self identify as such in United States government censuses, include relatively recent black immigrants from Africa, South America and elsewhere who self-identify as of African descent. A big percentage of African Americans descended from slaves, most of which were sold by African states or kidnapped by African, Arab, European or American slave traders. The existing market for slaves in Africa was exploited and expanded by European powers in search of free free labor for New World plantations. Are African Americans less concerned with the consequences of aging? Let’s take the cosmetic world for example to emphasize my points to come. The cosmetic world is filled with all sorts of products designed to keep women (and occasionally men) look (and feeling) young. The products are primarily geared towards skin care and more specified for wrinkles. Let’s take a look at cosmetic commercials and ads, you mist find something very interesting: there are few black women. Of course, there are women of different ethnic groups, which by way of sending a message that all women, no matter ethnicity are concerned with aging. For the most part, it seems that Caucasian women (more so than black women) are concerned about the aging process. To aid in my point, I’ll use the statistics from the Society of Plastic Surgeons that proves that African Americans are still one of the smaller groups requesting plastic surgery. Whites account for 69% while blacks have only 8%. There is a very popular phrase within the African American community affirming that â€Å"black don’t crack†. This phrase is an exact implication that African Americans typically look younger in age versus other ethnic groups, mainly the white ethnic group. A person’s physical health, one’s lifestyle and health definitely play a role in this. It is usually quite common for people to mistake a black women who may be 65 and be mistaken for 55 and for women in their 40’s to be mistaken as being in their 30’s (Yeo, 2001). The most common and scientifically proven reason for this is because African Americans typically have more melanin that a person has in their skin, the more complex it is for the skin’s harmful rays to penetrate, creating wrinkles, spots, lines and other anomalies. For some reason, it has not been until recently that cosmetic companies begun targeting African-American women for anti-aging products. In a 2006 article in Essence magazine, it purports that the cosmetic industry in general has seen a marked increase in toiletries and cosmetic advertising in general, marketers choosing non-black publications to reach an additional demographic. â€Å"The myth is that women of color don’t care about aging,† the president of Essence, Michelle Ebanks has stated. â€Å"We don’t wrinkly as early, but we care about it†. That confirms it! That statement is a pure indication that black women are just as concerned about their aging physical appearance as other ethnic groups. However, Ebanks also shed great insight on another important note; women of color are more likely to share information about beauty products by word of mouth, rather than through heavy media commentary. This in and of itself may give the impression that black women are less concerned with aging. The general theory that black women give birth at a younger age than other ethnic groups also might have a little something to do with the perception that they care less about aging (Yeo, 2001). While this may sound stilted and just outrageous, do consider the fact that if a woman gives birth to her first child by the age of 20, by the time that child is able to enter college, the mother is still at her youthful age, barely reaching 40. If this birth cycle (or similar variations of it) continues, then the mother will be able to call herself â€Å"Grandma† before she even reaches the age of 50. Although, black women who become grandmothers rather early very often feel less inclined to be concerned with aging; because they have already completed a life cycle that others take many years to establish. It could be said that as stigma of young motherhood becomes more irrelevant, so do the women’s concerns about growing old. The elderly are treated with high regard and respect in the African American community. Those women who enter this â€Å"elder† phase of life early (25 to 38 years old) feel the pressure of role conflict and tension in the social support they receive(Dorthy, 2004). They perceive grand parenthood as a â€Å"tenuous† role. Those who enter grand parenthood â€Å"on time† (42 to 57 years old) have less conflict but can also feel the pressure of integrating family and occupational roles(Ada, 1998). Women in this age usually occupy a traditional family role, that â€Å"lofty† and respected position of a grandmother. She is also the nurturer and disciplinarian of children, the family historian, the hub of the family network in which decisions are made, and the convener of family events. How to cite Cultural Aging, Papers

What would Victor Hugo make of this Essay Example For Students

What would Victor Hugo make of this? Essay In his novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame,  Victor  Hugo  decried the numberless degradations and mutilations the Notre Dame cathedral had suffered at the hands of remodelers. If  Hugo  were alive today, he might have a similar opinion about what Disney has done to his classic work. Disneys cartoon version, which opens in theaters Friday, is a sanitized, politically correct retelling of  Hugos grim tale. In the studios hands,  Hugos grotesque hunchback becomes cute and endearing, and the novels gruesome ending turns happy and uplifting. Disney changed the villain, Frollo, from a priest to a judge and transformed gypsies from baby stealers into an oppressed minority. The novel is one of many examples of books of the past that have been betrayed by translations and interpretations, said  Hugo  scholar  Victor  Brombert, of Princeton University. Disneys version is the fourth Hunchback movie. While previous films also took liberties with the story, they at least didnt turn the the title character, Quasimodo, into a cuddly little guy. Thats a far cry from the original vision of  Victor  Hugo  (1802-1885). He was a prolific French poet, novelist and playwright who dominated 19th century literature. Although most respected in France for his poetry, hes best known elsewhere for his novels Les Miserables and The Hunchback of Notre Dame. In the fall of 1830,  Hugo  locked his formal clothes away, so he wouldnt be tempted to go out, and penned the 500-page Notre Dame of Paris in 4 1/2 months. (The title was changed to The Hunchback of Notre Dame in the English translation.) The historic novel is set in Paris in the late 15th century. . . . Warning: Dont read on if you dont want the novels plot revealed. Gypsies steal a baby girl, Esmeralda, and in her crib leave behind the grotesque Quasimodo. Esmeralda grows up a beautiful gypsy dancer, while Quasimodo is adopted by the demented priest, Frollo. The reclusive Quasimodo becomes the cathedrals bell ringer, which causes him to lose his hearing. Frollo lusts after Esmeralda, but she loves Phoebus, a captain of the kings archers. Phoebus seduces Esmeralda, cynically professing his love. Frollo stabs Phoebus in a jealous rage. But its Esmeralda whos charged with the crime, and shes sentenced to hang. Quasimodo rescues Esmeralda from the gallows and brings her to the cathedral, where shes given sanctuary. A mob attacks the cathedral, and while Quasimodo is fending them off, Frollo kidnaps Esmeralda. Frollo offers her freedom in return for sleeping with him. She refuses and is sent back to the gallows. This time, Quasimodo is unable to rescue Esmeralda. He sees her dangling at the end of the rope while terrible convulsions travel down (her) body. Enraged, Quasimodo throws Frollo off the cathedral. Quasimodo disappears, and about two years later, authorities discover his remains in a cellar where Esmeralda and other criminals are buried. Quasimodos skeleton is clutching Esmeraldas skeleton. Not exactly a Disneyesque ending. Disney rewrote the story from start to finish. The movie leaves out the part about gypsies stealing a baby, as well as passages in which Esmeralda is horribly tortured and locked in a rat-infested dungeon. For comic relief, there are three talking gargoyles, two of whom are named  Victor  and  Hugo. Phoebus is transformed from an unprincipled cad into a brave and handsome lover. In the end, Quasimodo saves Esmeralda, kills the hated Frollo and is carried through the streets a hero. Nevertheless, the movie is grim, at least by Disney standards. The music is heavy, the colors are dark and some parts may frighten small children. Especially scary is a scene in which Frollo sees Esmeraldas image in a fire and vows shell face the fires of damnation if she wont have him. Since the book isnt read much anymore in American schools, the Disney version likely will supplant  Hugos story in popular culture. And thats too bad.  Hugos novel is a great work, said French lit professor Robert Morrissey of the University of Chicago. When my students read it, they loved it, Morrissey said. Its got everything sex, power, blood, and Quasimodo, whos a great character. And theres more to the novel than its compelling plot.  Hugo  ruminates on themes such as architecture, the futility of acquiring knowledge and the French Revolution. The mob attack on the cathedral, for example, is a metaphor for the storming of the Bastille.

Things Fall Apart Precis Chapter 1-13 Essay Example

Things Fall Apart Precis Chapter 1-13 Essay Chapter 1 Okonkwo is the wealthy and respected warrior of the Umuofia clan. He defeated Amalinze the Cat in a wrestling match and brought honor to his village. Amalinze was undefeated for 7 years, so the win caused some attention towards Okonkwo. The thing was that Okonkwo’s father Unoka, was the total opposite. Unoka feared the sight of blood; however he was a skilled flute player, and had a love for language. Chapter 2 The town crier rings the ogene and asks for all of the clansmen to gather in the market in the morning. At the gathering Ogbuefi Ezeugo announces that someone from the village of Mbaino murdered the wife of an Umuofia tribesman. Everyone was as mad as can be. So Okonkwo travels to Mbaino and delivers a message saying that they must hand over to Umuofia a virgin, and a young man. If Mbaino doesn’t cooperate, the two villages must go at war. It sounds good for Umuofia, knowing that they have a good reputation for its skill in war and magic. Mbaino later agrees to Umuofia’s terms and hands over what they want. Since Umuofia didn’t know what to do with the fifteen year old boy, so they handed him to Okonkwo. Okonkwo has three wives and eight children, an obi (a hut) and can support all of them. Okonkwo fears weakness, which he associates with his father and women. He also constantly beats and nags his son, Nwoye because he finds him lazy. Chapter 3 Okonkwo talks about his childhood, and on how he was never able to have a successful harvest. Unoka, his father had bad fortune and died of an illness which caused swelling of the limbs and stomach. We will write a custom essay sample on Things Fall Apart Precis Chapter 1-13 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Things Fall Apart Precis Chapter 1-13 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Things Fall Apart Precis Chapter 1-13 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Ani the earth goddess didn’t find that death acceptable so therefore his body could not be buried and was sent to the Evil Forest to rot, making Okonkwo more ashamed. People donated many seeds to Okonkwo when he was preparing his first farm in yams, but the growing season later turned into a disaster as well as for other farmers in the village. The village suffered first a big drought, then next endless rain and floods. Chapter 4 The clan decides that Ikemefuna will stay with Okonkwo. Ikemefuna is homesick and wants to go back at first, but Nwoye’s mother treats Ikemefuna like her wn, and gets popular with Okonkwo’s kids. Ikemefuna knows many stories the children didn’t know, and has a talent for making flutes out of bamboo sticks, and setting traps for bush rodents. Ikemefuna becomes comfortable enough to call Okonkwo â€Å"father. † Okonkwo also beats his youngest wife, because she got her hair braided without cooking. The priest demands Okonkwo t o pay a fine and sacrifice a nanny goat and a hen for his actions. It was the Week of Peace when that happened and after that villagers began to clear the land in preparation for planting their farms. Nwoye and Ikemefuna help Oknonkwo with the deeds but are criticized in doing so. Chapter 5 Before the harvest, the village holds the Feast of the New Yam to give thanks to the earth goddess (Ani). All the old yams left over from the old year must be thrown away. Okonkwo invites his wife’s relatives. While everyone seems happy about the coming festival, Okonkwo knows he will get tired of it and would rather stay on his farm. Ekwefi, Okonwo’s second wife admits to taking some leaves from his banana tree, so Okonkwo beats her also tries to shoot her but misses. Chapter 6 Second day of the festival and everyone gathers at the village playing field to watch the wrestling match between men of the village and neighboring one. The wrestling ends with a rematch between Ikezue and Okafo, just when people thought that it was going to be another draw a second year in a row, Okafo throws him and wins. Then the villagers sing a song of praise to Okafo. Chapter 7 Nwoye and Ikemefuna spend all their time together like brothers. During the evenings, they both sit next to Okonkwo in his hut and listen to stories of violence and bloodshed. Nwoye still likes his mother’s stories, but he acts like he doesn’t like them, so it can show Okonkwo he’s masculine. Ogbuefi Ezedu, the oldest man in the village, needs to have a talk with Okonkwo. He needs to speak to Okonkwo privately. Ogbuefi Ezeudu talks about how Ikemefuna needs to be killed as part of retribution to the killing of a woman three years back in Mbaino. Ogbuefi tells Okonkwo not to kill Ikemefuna, since the boy calls him father, but eventually Okonkwo kills Ikemefuna with his machete to make him not appear to be weak. Chapter 8 Okonkwo now goes into depression mode. He feels pretty weak, and can’t really sleep or eat. Okonkwo doesn’t eat anything for two days and just drinks palm wine. Nwoye is now scared of his dad, because of the killing and now tries to avoid him. Okonkwo asks Ekwefi to make him a dish, and does it in his favorite way and has Ezinma bring the food to him. Okonkwo repeatedly wishes that Ezinma was a boy, because she has â€Å"the right spirit. † Okonkwo wants some work to distract himself, but he’s out of luck because the down farming season. When Okonkwo meets his best friend Obierika, he goes on and on about Nwoye being soft and calls him out for not coming with him to kill Ikemefuna. Then all of a sudden, news comes in saying there has been a death of the oldest man in a neighboring village, shortly after his wife dies. Okonkwo then sits with Obierika to bargain his daughter’s brideprice with the family of her suitor. Chapter 9 Okonkwo can finally sleep well again, and feeling like his old self. Just as he’s feeling good, he is woken up in the morning to Ekwefi pounding his door, and trying to tell him that Ezinma is dying. Okonkwo then runs immediately to Ekwefi’s hut. Ekwefi’s relationship between Ezinma is very close because that’s her only child, while her nine other children died in infancy. Okonkwo leaves and returns to gather herbs to heal his little daughter. After he’s done boiling the herbs, he forces Ezinma and forces her to sit over the pot of medicine covered by a blanket. Though she complains and struggles to be let loose, she is held down. When Okonkwo is done and releases her, she’s drenched with sweat and falls asleep. Chapter 10 The village holds an interesting ceremony which draws the attention of a large crowd. The clan’s ancestral spirits, which are known as egwugwu, emerge from a secret house that no woman whatsoever is allowed to step in. The egwugwu take the form of masked men, but everyone suspects that Okonkwo is one of them. This makes the women and children fearful. Chapter 11 Ezinma survived her fever, and she and Ekwefi take turns telling each other folktales. Then Chielo in her role as priestess informs Ekwefi that Agbala, Oracle of Hills and Caves wishes to see Ezinma. Chapter 12 After Chielo took Ezinma away, Okonkwo was not able to sleep. He made several trips to the cave before he finallyfound and joined Ekwefi waiting outside the cave. When Chielo came out of Agbala’s cave, she returned her to the hut safely sound asleep. The following day the village celebrates on the marriage of the daughter of Obierika. Chapter 13 Drums and cannons sound for the death of the oldest man in the village, Ezedu. His funeral was a big deal because he was one of the head honchos of the Umuofia. But during all this an accident occurred. Ezedu’s sixteen year old son has been shot and falls dead. It was Okonkwo who did it and he had to leave the village for 7 years.

Court Reporting and Legal Journalism Writing Guide

Court Reporting and Legal Journalism Writing Guide So youve been to court, taken good notes on a trial, done all the necessary interviews and have plenty of background. Youre ready to write. But writing about the courts can be challenging. Trials are often long and almost always complex, and for the beginning court reporter, the learning curve can be steep. So here are some tips for writing about the courts: Cut out the Jargon Lawyers love to spout legal terminology - legalese, for short. But, chances are, your readers wont understand what most of it means. So when writing your story, its your job to translate legal jargon into plain, simple English that anyone can understand. Lead With the Drama Many trials are long periods of relatively boring procedural stuff punctuated by brief moments of intense drama. Examples might include an outburst by the defendant or an argument between an attorney and the judge. Be sure to highlight such moments in your story. And if theyre important enough, put them in your lede. Example A man on trial for allegedly killing his wife during an argument unexpectedly stood up in court yesterday and shouted, I did it! Get Both Sides Its important in any news article to get both - or all - sides of the story, but as you can imagine its especially crucial in a court story. When a defendant is charged with a serious crime, its your job to get both the defense and the prosecutions arguments into your article. Remember, the accused is innocent until proven guilty. Find a Fresh Lede Everyday Many trials go on for days or even weeks, so be sure to follow the recommendations for follow-up stories when you cover a long one. Remember, the key is to take the most important, interesting, and newsworthy testimony of any given day and build your lede around that. Work on the Background While the top of your story should be the trials latest developments, the bottom should include the basic background of the case - who is the accused, what is he accused of, where and when did the alleged crime occur, etc. Even when covering a highly publicized trial, never assume that your readers will know all the background of the case. Use the Best Quotes Good quotes can make or break a trial story. Jot down as many direct quotes as you can in your notebook, then use just the best ones in your story.

Assessment of the Progression of the Withdrawal of Weapons and Military Forces in the World

Assessment of the Progression of the Withdrawal of Weapons and Military Forces in the World This is my research paper on disarmament. It contains breifly all the important steps taken in the feild of disarmament till recently. Introduction Prof. Lincoln P. Bloomfield aptly remarked that, A visitor from another, more advanced planet would find many paradoxes on earth, but surely the most extraordinary would be the fantastic destructive potential of nuclear weapons which contrasts starkly with the primitive and near impotent institutions of global peacekeeping. He might marvel that a breed capable of producing the wealth for a 185 billion armory of lethal devices let alone the technology for killing several hundred in a single exchange of weapons had not produced a workable international order capable of regulating such apocalyptic man-made power. . Also no such International Order exists today and the prospects are not encouraging that it will exist within the foreseeable future. Dr. Hambro has also rightly remarked The armament race comes as close to collective insanity as anything in the history of mankind and it is, to my mind, surprising that public opinion is willing to take it. Disarmament has become a more urgent and complicated issue with the rapid development of nuclear weapons capable of mass destruction. Since the explosion of the first atomic bombs in 1945, the previous contention that armaments races were economically inexpedient and led inevitably to war was replaced by the argument that the future use of nuclear weapons in quantity threatened the continued existence of civilization itself. It was understood that war was unnecessary and nations of the world also understood the urgent need to part with these deadly weapons. The League of Nations writes Philip Noel Baker, is the first attempt in history to furnish the international society of nations with the permanent and organic system of international political institutions. This attempt was an outcome of the world war. In the post-World War II period, there were discussions at several levels with a view to the limitation and control of armaments. Efforts ranged from continuous talks at the United Nations to such discussions among nuclear powers from the SALT era to the START era and it still continues What is Disarmament? Disarmament is defined as the act of laying down arms, especially reduction or abolition of a nations military forces and armaments. It is not a new concept. It has been discussed for several centuries even before the formation of League of Nations. The idea of disarmament can be traced from the writings of Sully, William Penn, Rousseau and Kant. But plans for its implementation have failed because no State was willing to pay the price that was required (i.e. to reduce there armaments and military force). The proposal of Russian Czar to Lord Castlereagh of Great Britain in 1816, however, was the first practical attempt to achieve quantitative disarmament. French monarch also made similar proposals in 1831 and on several other occasions, but with no success. The International Peace Conference at Hague in 1899 is the first great landmark in the field of disarmament because it invoked for the specific purpose of limiting armaments by national agreement. Yet another landmark was the treaty of Versailles, which drastically reduced the German armaments. Thus during 19th century and down to the time of the First World War, numerous efforts were made to achieve the limitation and reduction of national armaments by international agreements. Although there had been a great number of discussions, conventions and proposals for disarmament, the ones that claimed success were few. It had been rightly observed by an eminent author: Disarmament efforts have been many, the successive few and limited. There has never been an approach to what Cohen calls effective disarmament. Disarmament and The League of Nations The Covenant of League of Nations was adopted as a part of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. It came into existence on January 10 1920 with 18 member states. According to Philip Noel Baker, the League of Nations is the first attempt in history to furnish the international society of nations with the permanent and organic system of international political institutions. This attempt was an outcome of the world war. As the League was adopted just after the world war, the framers selected achievement of widespread disarmament as its fundamental goal. Finally, the Disarmament Conference met on February 2, 1932, in Geneva. The representatives of 61 States, who participated, agreed on necessity of arms limitation, of international supervision of the arms business and of publicity of arms budget. Though the Conference failed in reconciling the French demand for security and German demand for status of equality with other European nations, it proved to be useful in solving some technical problems of the disarmament. It also became evident that the concept of security was of greater than the concept of limiting arms i.e. to say disarmament must follow rather than precede security. However the League of Nations was considered unsuccessful in achieving the concept of widespread disarmament. The efforts of the League failed on multifarious grounds. Some of the reasons of the failure of League in achieving widespread disarmament are as follows: League of Nations was not universal. It was limited to a few nations. It didnt have any effective enforcement body. The Conference for disarmament was held too late under very hostile conditions. The major reason however was that there was no unity between the nations which were members of the League. They were hostile towards each other. The rise of Hitler and the efforts of Germany in re-arming proved that League was a failure in achieving Disarmament and peace. Finally, the League of Nations was dissolved in 1946. Disarmament and The United Nations Inefficiency of the League of Nations led to the Second World War in 1939, which was the most destructive among the two. The result of the Second World War compelled the nations to establish an international organization so that mutual disputes could be resolved peacefully and peace be restored in the world. This lead to the establishment of United Nations Organization in 1945. United Nations was far more effective and efficient in promoting widespread disarmament as compared to League. It also had a greater number of member nations and a better enforcement body. The Charter of the UN provides for the regulation of armaments. The provisions of disarmament in the UN Charter are as follows: The Charter empowers the General Assembly to consider the general principles of co-operation in the maintenance of the peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments. The Assembly can also make recommendation with regard to such principles to the Members of the Security Council. Secondly, it is further provided that in order to promote the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security with the least diversion to armaments, the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee (referred to in Article 47) can formulate plans for regulation of armaments. Thus the Charter aims to provide security along with the regulation of armaments by granting military powers to the U.N under Article 43. However it has to be noted that the special agreements in the Article 43 have not materialized till today. The Military Staff Committee has ceased to function and hence it never dealt in regulation of armaments. Thirdly, in order to enable the U.N. to take urgent military measures, the Charter enjoins the members to hold immediately available national air force contingents, for combined international enforcement action. However the first important step of the U.N in the field of Disarmament was of adopting a resolution on January 24, 1946, which established the U.N. Atomic Energy Commission. The function of this Commission was to regulate and reduce nuclear weapons. On June 24, 1946, United States presented a plan known as the Baruch Plan to the U.N. Atomic Energy Commission. This plan envisaged the establishment by treaty an International Atomic Development Authority which was to own, operate, manage and license all facilities for the production of atomic energy. The aim of the United States by this plan was to establish a control system independent of the Charter and the Atomic Energy Commission, which included inspection and verification of weapons especially nuclear weapons before taking major steps towards Disarmament. But this was opposed by the Soviet Union, which stuck firmly to the original Charter. The Soviet Union insisted for prior outlawing of atomic weapons and reduction of all weapons without effective international control by means of inspection. Consequently, a compromise was made by laying down certain principles, which governed the general regulation and reduction of armam ents. However when the US monopoly of nuclear weapons ended in 1949, Baruch Plan lost its importance. So a need was felt to form a body for regulation of weapons that too mainly nuclear weapons. This need led to the establishment of Disarmament Commission by the 6th General Assembly in 1952. This consolidated the U.N. Atomic Energy Commission and the U.N. Commission for Conventional Armaments. Soviet Union and the Western Allies constituted the five-power sub-committee of Disarmament Commission. Also in October 1956, another body namely International Atomic Energy Agency was established. The Agency aims to seek to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world. It comprises of three organs namely General Conference, A Board of Governors and Staff headed by the Director General. The most important and difficult task faced by it is inspection and safeguarding of fissionable materials. The Agency is neither related to U.N. nor is an independent inter-governmental organisation. It has a special status under the aegis of the U.N. Disarmament Efforts from 1960 to 1970 Though 15 years had passed after the establishment of the United Nations, there were no significant or important steps taken for the purpose of Disarmament till 1960. The year 1960 witnessed a turning point in the disarmament debates when there was a thaw in the relation between the two super powers namely United States of America and The Soviet Union. The consequence of this thaw was the signing of four important treaties, which dealt with Disarmament. These treaties were as follows: Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) On 5th of August 1963, The Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), also known as Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) was signed in Moscow by the United States, United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. Finally 113 Countries became part to it, which included India, Italy etc. However, France and China did not sign this treaty. The treaty required the Parties to prohibit, prevent, and abstaining from carrying out nuclear weapons tests or any other nuclear explosions in the atmosphere, in outer space, under water, or in any other environment, if such explosions cause radioactive debris to be present outside the territorial limits of the State that conducts an explosion. However this treaty does not provide for international verification and it is understood that each party may do so by its own national technical means. Outer Space Treaty (1967) The Legal Subcommittee considered the Outer Space Treaty in 1966 and agreement was reached in the General Assembly in the same year. The Treaty was opened for signature by the three depository Governments (the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States of America) in January 1967, and it entered into force in October 1967. The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework on international space law, including the following disarmament principles: States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner. The Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes; States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies. 98 States have ratified, and an additional 27 have signed the Outer Space Treaty The Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America (1967) The Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America (also known as the Treaty of Tlatelolco) obligates Latin American parties not to acquire or possess nuclear weapons, nor to permit the storage or deployment of nuclear weapons on their territories by other countries. This Treaty was signed on February 14 1967, at a regional meeting of Latin American countries at Tlatelolco, a section of Mexico City. Non Proliferation Treaty (1968) The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also referred to as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), obligates the five acknowledged nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russian Federation, United Kingdom, France, and China) not to transfer nuclear weapons, other nuclear explosive devices, or their technology to any non-nuclear-weapon state. Non-nuclear-weapon States Parties undertake not to acquire or produce nuclear weapons or nuclear explosive devices. They are required also to accept safeguards to detect diversions of nuclear materials from peaceful activities, such as power generation, to the production of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. This must be done in accordance with an individual safeguards agreement, concluded between each non-nuclear-weapon State Party and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Under these agreements, all nuclear materials in peaceful civil facilities under the jurisdiction of the state must be declar ed to the IAEA, whose inspectors have routine access to the facilities for periodic monitoring and inspections. If information from routine inspections is not sufficient to fulfill its responsibilities, the IAEA may consult with the state regarding special inspections within or outside declared facilities. The Treaty was opened for signature on 01 July 1968, and signed on that date by the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and 59 other countries. However, India refused to sign this treaty on the ground that it was discriminatory and unequal. Disarmament Decade (1970 -1980) The decade of 1970 was declared by the United Nations as the Disarmament Decade. The U.N. Agency that has been mostly involved with the goal of Disarmament was the 26 Nations U.N. Conference on the Committee on Disarmament. It celebrated its 10th anniversary in March 1970. It was very heartening to note that the U.Ns Disarmament Decade began auspiciously with the coming into force on 5th March 1970 of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. The decade also witnessed the signing of a number of treaties. They are as follows: Treaty on the Prohibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof. This treaty was opened for signature at London, Moscow and Washington from 11 February 1971 and it came into force on 18 May 1972. The Treaty read as follows The States Parties to this Treaty undertake not to implant or emplace on the seabed and the ocean floor and in the subsoil thereof beyond the outer limit of a sea-bed zone, any nuclear weapons or any other types of weapons of mass destruction as well as structures, launching installations or any other facilities specifically designed for storing, testing or using such weapons. However it has to be noted that the treaty prohibited only the placement and fixation of weapons on the seabed and is silent about mobile launchers and submarines, which are likely to remain a principle means of nuclear warfare. Thus it is evident that treaties dealing with nuclear disarmament that were made by U.S.A and Russia had the aim of preventing the non-nuclear countries from acquiring atomic weapons, rather than to regulating and giving up of their own armaments. Hence India did not sign this treaty, which was one-sided. In-spite of all this limitations, this treaty succeeded from barring nuclear weapons from 70% of the earths surface, which was a significant contribution towards disarmament efforts. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) Strategic Arms Limitation Talks took place between U.S.A and the Soviet Union on May 1972. The aim of these talks was to find a way for both sides to agree on plans that would limit and perhaps some day reduce their vast nuclear arsenals. However this agreement permitted both the countries to replace existing offensive nuclear missiles with more sophisticated weapons as technological advance permits. Hence it was said by the Chinese Chief Mr. Chiao Kua Hua that Soviet American agreement to limit Strategic Arms be in no way regarded as a step towards nuclear disarmament. On the contrary, it marks the beginning of a new chapter in the Soviet American arms race. Convention on the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological and Toxin Weapon and on their Destruction. This convention was drafted by the conference of the committee on Disarmament and was commenced by the General Assembly on December 16 1971. On April 10 1972, it was opened for signature with a special request of the then Secretary General Kurt Waldheim that the convention may be signed and ratified as early as possible. The aim of the treaty was to promote general disarmament and for that purpose, it prohibited development, production and stockpiling of chemical and bacteriological (biological) weapons. Geneva Disarmament Conference (1974) It began on 17 April 1974 with 25 nations participating. The aim of this conference was to prohibit the use of nuclear weapons under the ground. It also dealt in making an agreement regarding Chemical Weapons. Special Session of General Assembly on Disarmament (1978) The Special Session on Disarmament was held by the General Assembly from 23rd May to 1st July 1978 at United Nations Headquarters. Before the end of the session, a Final Document consisting of an Introduction, a Declaration, a Programme of Action, and Recommendations concerning the international machinery for disarmament negotiations. Under the Programme of Action, the Assembly set out a series of suggestions for negotiation and in Declaration, which is the part of the Final Document, it urged that the resources released through disarmament be used to promote the well being of all peoples and to improve the economic conditions of developing countries. The main aim of this Session was to strengthen the international disarmament negotiating machinery. Disarmament Efforts after 1980 After 1980, there was a revolution of technology. It affected almost all the fields including the field of armaments. With the development of technology, new types of weapons with immense destructive capacities were invented. Hence it was necessary to promote disarmament and regulate the creation of these armaments. Following are the important developments in the field of disarmament, which took place after 1980. Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons that may be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (1981) It dealt with the prohibition of very harmful conventional weapons. These included prohibition of weapons that emitted radiation harmful to human body, prohibition and regulation of mines, booby traps, incendiary weapons (weapons that cause fire when used) and blinding laser weapons. Rarotonga Treaty (1985) In 1983, 16 years after the Treaty of Tlatelolco was opened for signature, Australia proposed to establish a nuclear weapon free zone in the South Pacific. As a result of the negotiations between the concerned States, a treaty was signed on August 6, 1985, in the city of Rarotonga, capital of the Cook Islands, establishing the proposed zone. Treaty on Open Skies (1992) The Treaty on Open Skies entered opened for signature on 24 March 1992, currently has 34 States Parties. The Treaty established a regime of unarmed aerial observation flights over the entire territory of its participants. The Treaty was designed to enhance mutual understanding and confidence by giving all participants, regardless of size, a direct role in gathering information about military forces and activities of concern to them. Treaty on Open Skies is one of the most wide-ranging international efforts to date to promote openness and transparency of military forces and activities. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (1995) Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) was adopted as a result of the Geneva Conference, which took place in June 1995. This treaty was adopted with the view of removing the shortcomings of the Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. It contained a comprehensive plan to prohibit nuclear tests. However, it was silent on the question regarding the destruction of already existing nuclear stockpiles. However this treaty was flouted by America by developing a super nuclear weapon capable of destroying targets placed under the ground. On the one hand, America has been pressurizing other countries to sign the treaty and on the other hand, it has been developing destructive nuclear weapons. These types of stand taken by America were severely criticized by many countries including India. Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (1997) This treaty is also known as Ottawa Treaty and was proposed by Canada. The main aim of the treaty was to destroy all types of Anti Personnel mines. The treaty also required that besides stopping the production and development of mines, a party to the treaty must destroy all the mines in its possession within 4 years. Just a small number of mines are allowed to remain for training (mine-clearance, detection, etc.). India and Disarmament Since Independence, India has consistently pursued the objective of global disarmament based on the principles of universality, non-discrimination and effective compliance. Given the horrific destructive capacity of nuclear weapons, India has always believed that a world free of nuclear weapons would enhance both global security and Indias own national security. Thus India has always advocated that the highest priority be given to nuclear disarmament as a first step towards general and complete disarmament. In 1978, India proposed negotiations for an international convention that would prohibit the use of threat of use of nuclear weapons. This was followed by another initiative in 1982 calling for a nuclear freeze i.e. prohibition on the production of fissile material for weapons, on production of nuclear weapons, and related delivery systems. At the special sessions of the United Nations General Assembly on disarmament, India put forward a number of serious proposals including the 1988 Comprehensive Plan for total elimination of weapons of mass destruction in a phased manner. It was a matter of regret that the proposals made by India along with several other countries did not receive a positive responsive and instead, a limited and distorted non-proliferation agenda, meant above all to perpetuate nuclear weapons was shaped. India didnt sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty because India considered these treaties as discriminatory and unequal. Both of these treaties were put forward by the nuclear power U.S.A, which later flouted these treaties. Thus according to India, these treaties were the ways designed by the nuclear powers to keep away nuclear know-how from non-nuclear states. However India has signed and ratified other treaties and conventions like Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention etc. This shows that India is an active country, which supports and takes actions for the promotion of disarmament. Conclusion Thus to conclude, it can be said that disarmament process is a very difficult one, but is very important in promoting international peace and security. However, complete disarmament can be obtained only if there is no threat to security of a nation or an individual and to achieve this task, there should be a strict and organized international order and absence of terrorist organizations. Unless this is achieved, the concept of disarmament will remain as the monopoly of the powerful nation to suppress other nations. The U.S attack on Iraq is a fresh example of this.