Art History Essay

1. How does Ernst Gombrich define style and how might we understand the relationship between an object’s style and the time and place in which it was created? Ernst Gombrich defines style as â€Å"any distinctive, and therefore recognizable, way in which an act is performed or an artifact made or ought to be performed and made.† He also portrays style as distinguished event or pieces that has â€Å"desirable consistency and conspicuousness† and â€Å"stands out from a mass of ‘undistinguished’ events or objects†. In relation to time and place in which style was created, â€Å"The analysis of stylistic traditions in terms of the means peculiar to individual arts cuts across another approach, which is less interested in longitudinal study of evolution than in the synchronic characterization of all activities of a particular group, nation, or period.† 2. Based upon the readings, what is the relationship between style and form? Style is observing and seeing recognizable features in an object; form is in representing the event, portrays the idea, in which style and form come together to create pictorial representation. 3. Jacques-Louis David is often described as the leader of the Neoclassical school of painting and Oath of the Horatii is frequently described as the quintessential Neoclassical painting. Identify five elements of David’s painting that might be described as Neoclassical. 1. â€Å"Neoclassic artists and critics sought to revive the ideal of classical Greece and Rome.† The drapery and clothing worn by the figures in the drawing represent the classical Greek era, as well as; the columns in the background show a great representation of classical architecture. 4. The harsh, slanting light gives the figures their relief, and their contrasting characters are conveyed using different forms. The figures are separated by large empty spaces in a stage-like area shown head-on. The applied shade and shadow contrasted to the lighting emphasis enhanced the perception of depth. 5. â€Å"There is a sense of order, logic, and clarity in the subject matter and content, concepts† such as dedicating it to a ruler. Also there is a sense of decorum, appropriateness, and morality was emphasized. The painting isn’t styled with playful subject matter, or dreamy mythological, Greek god-like figures and bright colors, but technical approach by the artist. 6. Through the use of shade and applied shadows to representing three dimensional space on a two dimensional canvas. The 1-point perspective of the room was convincingly natural; the human figures were well proportioned and anatomically accurate. 7. The return to the Roman antiquity was the primary source of inspiration, which led to a period of resurgence in classicism and classical knowledge. It was also a period of enlightenment and rational thinking. This entire picture was a result of an imagination, drawn up with convincing realism to serve as an illustration to convince the viewers at their first glance. 8. Explain the significance of genre and narrative in the classification of David’s Oath as Neoclassical. This image is classified in the genre of history painting. This painting was based on the legend about the founding of Rome. David tells the story of three brothers that make an oath of loyalty to their father swearing defend their city ‘til death. . Most Neo-Classical paintings take their subjects from Ancient Greek and Roman history. In this painting, the Horatii brothers are swearing an oath on their swords, which their father presents to them to fight until they die for their country. David creates the ideal image to represent â€Å"greater seriousness and moral commitment,† which are the basic principles of Neo-Classicism. David achieves what most neoclassical artists and critics strive for in their art by reviving the idea of classical Greece and Rome.

Subculture

Cortland Bolling Branham SOCI 1301 In the article â€Å"Authenticity in the Skateboarding World†, subculture is described as a completely separate culture with its own set of values and norms outside those of the world’s society. Skaters can be described as one of these subcultures because of their unique values, norms, and sanctions that differ from most sports. Unlike sports such as basketball the norm for skaters is their lack of interest in competition and trying to out due each other.According to Beal and Weidman the skateboarding community follows two central values, participant control and the devaluing of competition; many skaters explain that they chose to skate, and that they choose individually what’s acceptable. After interviewing more skaters the authors discover that like other cultures they also have their own sanctions. One example is that many of the skaters that are in it to look cool, or to be better than everyone else are looked down upon as n ot being â€Å"real skaters†, but instead conformist.While sports are a common spot for subcultures, they are not the only place they can be found and in fact most people belong to one. For example I am a member of a Baptist church. While it is true that Baptist are Christians just like Methodist and Catholics, we have our own sub subculture or set of values, norms, and sanctions that somewhat differ from the other Christian churches. In a Baptist church praise and worship is often very loud and up beat while at a Lutheran church they remain quiet unless spoken too and sing old hymns, so being loud would be considered rude and vulgar.

Access to E-Mail Essay Example for Free

Access to E-Mail Essay Choose cite format: APA MLA Harvard Chicago ASA IEEE AMA Haven't found the essay you want? Get your custom sample essay for only $13.90/page ? Traditionally, the standard of evaluation an administrative law judge might use when determining the importance of an error was the question of intent. If the person committing the error had no intent to cause harm, the additional evidence provided to the law enforcement agency would likely remain inadmissible, but there would be no penalties to either the provider of the information or the law enforcement agency receiving it. In fact, in not too ancient American history, the extra information would have been viewed as a bonus for the law enforcement agency and the discussion would have stopped there. However, in more recent cases, the court has placed a new set of restrictions and responsibilities on the law enforcement agency, possibly to the detriment of law enforcement. The best example of this new anti-law enforcement attitude is evidenced in Eric Lichtblau’s New York Times article â€Å"F. B. I. Gained Unauthorized Access to E-Mail†. The article firmly places the blame for the mistake on the internet provider and yet expects the FBI to correct the mistake. â€Å"Marcia Hofmann, a lawyer for the privacy foundation, said the episode raised troubling questions about the technical and policy controls that the F. B. I. had in place to guard against civil liberties abuses. â€Å"How do we know what the F. B. I. does with all these documents when a problem like this comes up? † Ms. Hofmann asked. † (Lichtblau, 2008). The author likens the mistake to the FBI receiving a warrant to search one apartment and the landlord mistakenly giving them the keys to the whole building, but the problem with that analysis is that in this case, the FBI did not immediately know it had been given a master set of keys. Perhaps more appropriately would be to say that the FBI had permission to search a single book in the library and the librarian provided them with every book in the library. Somehow, privacy activists are claiming that the FBI must have a policy in place to prevent the mistake in the first place and clean it up when it does happen. Hofmann specifically questions how the FBI was disposing of the documents and there is a legitimate question there; however, the article misses the point and creates an administrative law nightmare for the bureau and subsequently for all law enforcement agencies. By implying that the FBI is somehow responsible for the manner in which other comply with search warrants, the newspaper article is promoting a significant shift in the administration of the law. Instead of simply asking law enforcement to be able to investigate crime and enforce that aspect of the law, we are asking them to act as administrators of the law as well. Though the title law enforcement does imply that they should be responsible for the administration of court orders including warrants, this new approach seems to blur the line between the court and the investigating agency, making it that much more difficult for the investigators to do their jobs. In the American tradition, with common law as its backing, law enforcement traditionally has served to enforce the compliance with administrative orders (like search warrants) only when the person responding to the warrant has refused to comply with the court’s orders. Now, with issues like the one discussed in this article, it appears that the focus may be changing and law enforcement may be charged with determining how well the respondent complies with the warrant as well. Though this initially will mean more work for the agency, as in this example, the FBI would need to ascertain that it received only the information in the search warrant, this could spell problems for civil rights down the road. If the law enforcement agency is now defining the degree of compliance with a search warrant, it is completely plausible that a future agency could demand more information than the warrant initially authorized and with the right judge, could justify whatever actions they took to get the information. The erosion of individual rights begins when we move away from judicial review of search warrant compliance and place it in the hands of law enforcement. Works Cited Lichtblau, Eric. â€Å"F. B. I. Gained Unauthorized Access to E-Mail†, New York Times, February 18, 2008. Available at: http://www. nytimes. com/2008/02/17/washington/17fisa. html? ex=1203829200&en=58b05e0425027b1b&ei=5123&partner=BREITBART, Accessed march 5, 2008. Access to E-Mail. (2016, Nov 21).

Freedom of Women to choose the right of Abortion Term Paper

Freedom of Women to choose the right of Abortion - Term Paper Example The United States law had legalized the practice of legal abortion since the year 1973. â€Å"Abortion was legalized in 1973 when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Roe v. Wade that during the first trimester, a woman has the right to decide what happens to her body. This landmark decision rested on the "right to privacy" which was introduced in 1965. In addition, the Court ruled that the state could intervene in the second trimester and could ban abortions in the third trimester. However, a central issue, which the Court declined to address, is whether human life begins at conception, at birth, or at some point in between† (Kathy Gill). From the Bible, there are no such terminology referred to as abortion, but there are many verses related to the concept of giving birth and the growth of the fetus in the womb of the woman. God is the sole creator and we admit it. But still the choice of giving birth or not remain the sole decision of the mother even if it is a rebellion against the superior power. From an Islamic point of view, there is belief that killing a child might bring poverty to the family as well as a lack of trust in God and as a failure to raise up a child and providing him with education and all satisfying his basic needs. Again there is no term abortion mentioned in the Holy Quran. In the past, women who needed to have an abortion always had to think harder and ask herself several questions. Is it legal and moral? Will she be punished religiously or legally for such an act? Will the society condemn her for doing it? Are her causes for performing an abortion right and rationalized? In this era, the women are gaining much more rights and now even their ideas have evolved and the answers they give are very challenging. Under the statement of Roe V. Wade in 1973, any woman has the right to abort a fetus, taking control of

Annotated Bibliography on Innovation Scholarly research

On Innovation Scholarly research - Annotated Bibliography Example It is due to this reason that the article can be used for practical reference. The tone used by the author in the article is quiet systemic which means that it is not for the general audience. However, the article lacks a slight degree of practical examples to make the material easy to understand. There were a number of researches which were conducted in order to formulate a similar relationship but only this research has been able to highlight it. It will not be incorrect to note that this research article is a classic in the field of innovation study with respect to human resource management. The aim of the chosen research is to evaluate the impact that in-house R&D and innovation can have on the medium-sized firms (SMEs). The study is basically quantitative in nature as the authors have made use of data from the German CIS. The author has used easy to understand tone which makes the research readable for general audiences. The research lacks a number of case studies which could have brought a more even layout of material of the research. The author of the research is a professional of HRM which makes the study credible. Considering the objectivity of the research, it should be noted that the data is most contemporary linking the gap of research done so far on this subject matter. The authors of the aforementioned article are professionals in the field of HRM and have relevant degree making this research as a desirable reference of this field. It should be noted that the article has focused on the innovation of employee participation at workplace. The authors have made use of qualitative approach to meet the hypothesis of the research. The research was conducted in 2011 which makes the research to be used in the present times increasing objectivity. The targeted audience of the research is businessmen. However, the tone of the research is easier to understand which makes the

Stem Cell Research Legislation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Stem Cell Research Legislation - Essay Example The Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act, aside from its ability to establish potential information for the benefit of the Americans, was hoping from the start to receive financial support from the government, and consensus votes among the legislators in both Congress and Senate (US Congress, 2010, p.9967). However, the Congressional Bill, Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act, vetoed by Bush administration, was highlighting scientific progress which would be under constraint through living up to ethical responsibilities (Rimmer, 2008, p.258). Under this point, stem cell research has difficulty finding funding support from the Federal Government, which leads to varying scrutiny from the point of view of the scientific community. Recently, the stem cell research is heading forward to human embryonic stem cells by viable preimplantation embryos through in vitro fertilization. However, it is not only in the US this substantially receives rejection leading to highly controlled legislative reg ulation, but including in some European countries like Austria, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, and Slovakia, primarily due to controversial ethical concerns associated with it (Atala, Lanza, Thomson & Nerem, 2010, p.215). However, some countries especially India, Israel, Singapore, China, Australia, Italy, Sweden, United Kingdom and other European countries have already implemented liberal and research-favorable regulatory policies associated with stem cell research (James, 2009, p.6). Unlike the US which is currently struggling to draft regulatory policies, these countries are remarkably looking forward to investigate and know more about the health benefits and great promises of stem cell technology for the humanity. Understanding this will eventually lead someone to think the prevailing legislative state of affairs going on in the US with stem cell research. In addition, some concern on this issue would be in line with knowing where the law on stem cells in th e US is heading in the future considering its highly conservative effort on this matter. As already stated, the prevailing state of affairs concerning stem cell research in the US is quite politically motivated from the point of view of scientific community. However, the federal government on the other hand just like with the stand of Bush administration, would want to emphasize the great influence of science and technology on the humanity together with its huge ethical concerns. In line with this concern, the Obama administration is also considering substantial restriction concerning legislative regulation for stem cells technology and research (Atala, Lanza, Thomson & Nerem, 2010, p.215). From the stand point of scientific community, the restrictions on legislative regulation hinder stem cells researchers to optimize better understanding on stem cells’ potential advantage for the humanity. However, it is clear that the law on stem cells in the US is heading to major progres sion. Just this year, Texas Board approves rules on use of stem cells (Park, 2012). However, there is a great controversy that proliferates upon the emancipation of this ruling. The rules include the use of adult stem cells. However, the great issue of concern at this point is on the safety of using adult stem cells, which at this point has not yet been proven feasible and safe (Park, 2012). So the real issue has

In relation to one particular country, critically assess the claim Essay

In relation to one particular country, critically assess the claim that the roadmap progresses the EU gender - Essay Example But soon EU has realised the need also to improve the quality of lives among the constituents of the European Union. On May 1, 1999, the Amsterdam Treaty was enforced and that signaled EU's predilection to give importance to the rights of individuals as well as to render them justice, individual security and freedom. Suddenly EU felt it is its role to be at the vanguard for the protection of their human rights as well as to eliminate discrimination against them by reason of race, color, sex, religion and age (Eur-Lex 2008). Signing the European Convention on Human Rights then became a condition for membership to the EU and all member States must accede to the provisions of the Charter of Fundamental Rights which became enforceable when the Lisbon Treaty was formally signed on December 13, 2007 (Europa 2007). As an offshoot of the Charter of Fundamental Rights, the Roadmap For The Equality Between Men and Women was adopted by EU on March 1, 2006, which aim is to promote gender equality throughout the European Union. This Roadmap for Equality Between Men and Women must be fleshed out because equality between men and women is specifically provided for in the 1993 Treaty of Maastricht which established the European Community. This treaty provision must be enforced so as to give life to the Charter and thus make it a powerful document that rules the lives of the EU constituents and not merely inserted there for the heck of it or to serve as decoration to add words to the volume of the provisions of the Treaty (The Treaty of Maastricht 1993). Article 2 specifically provides "The community shall have as its task..to promote throughout the community..equality between men and women. Article 3 section 2 further provided, "In all the activities referred to in this article, the community shall aim to eliminate inequalities, and to promote equality, between men and women". Article 141 is more specific with its provisions as it exhorts "equal pay for male and female workers for equal work or work of equal v alue". It also defined the meaning of the provision"equal pay without discrimination based on sex". That it is imperative that the Roadmap must be established is clearly specified in article 141 section 3, whereby it stipulates that "the Council acting in accordance with the procedure referred to in article 251..shall adopt measures to ensure the application of the principle of equal opportunities and equal treatment of men and women in matters of employment and occupation, including the principle of equal pay for equal work over work of equal value". Article 141

Medical Financial definition of terms Research Paper

Medical Financial definition of terms - Research Paper Example The PMPM is used in the analysis of the parameters of the different health status of the patients. The PMPM feed paid to the health home care providers is determined by several factors (Wodchis, Hirth & Fries, 2007). The health home program in the New York Medicaid adjusts the PMPM that is paid to the health care providers according to the enrollment volume, region, and the case mix. There are plans to incorporate the patient’s functional status in the near future by the New York Medicaid program as one of the determinants of the consideration in paying the Health Home providers. The New York Medicaid program provides for payment of a case finding Per Member per Month bill, which is a cheaper amount. â€Å"The case finding PMPM is provided during the first few weeks of the program to cater for reimbursement of engagement and outreach services† (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid services, 2011). The provisions of the New York Medicaid are that the billing of active medic al care management of the enrolled patients is only made when a health care manager is assigned to the patient. â€Å"The New York Medicaid health home program has various managed care plans, which give the guidelines for the payment if the contracted medical professionals† (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid services, 2011). ... cost of medical care in Medicaid, the capitalization is used to ensure that all medical expenses including the payment of the providers and the expenses of purchase of drugs are paid for and accounted for (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid services, 2011). Acuity score in Case Management Medicaid â€Å"The term acuity score in case management stands for the levels into which patients are assigned depending on their health status† (Sparer, Brown & Cover, 1999). In Medicaid, a specified criterion is used to categorize patients into levels with point values called equity scores which very according to the life area that the condition of the patient is allocated to. The acuity score of the patient is assigned under two life areas. These are the basic and medical needs. Each one of the life areas has different levels with corresponding points or acuity scores (Sparer, Brown & Cover, 1999). According to Meade and Pope (2007), in Medicaid, the first level of the basic needs life area has one point and it includes various basic needs. These are sustenance items such as clothing and food. The Medicaid provides that the items in this level are made available through the means of the patient. The second level in the basic needs life area has an acuity score of 4 points. The needs in this level are for the sustenance of the patient. According to the provisions of the Medicaid program, the patient should be able to meet these needs with occasional assistance. â€Å"This means that emergence assistance is not required in this level. The assistance needed to perform the ADL by the patient who scores 4 points is usually weekly† (Meade & Pope, 2007). The third level of the basic needs life area is where the acuity score of the patient is six points. At this level, the patient requires

IMF (International Monetary Fund) from 2007 to present using Research Paper - 1

IMF (International Monetary Fund) from 2007 to present using international business perspective - Research Paper Example But, with changing world scenario, various European countries, Japan as well as emerging economies like India, China, Korea, etc. have reduced the dominance of USA as they are following the same footprint (Hill, 2010). For example, share of FDI of the companies of developing world have increased from less than 1 percent in 1980 to as high as 15 percent in 2008, while the share of USA based companies have declined from near 40 percent in 1980 to 18 percent in 2008(approximately) (Hill, 2010). The political scenario has also changed in this changed economic situation. The political dominance of US is no under great threat in this increasing market economy. Many European countries that were Communist earlier and Some Asian countries have undertaken democratic politics and stressed on building free market economies. Hence, international businesses are getting more and more opportunities to enter these economies that have in turn strengthen these economies. (Hill, 2010) In this globalized world, importance of global institutions has increased significantly in maintaining order in various economical and political fields. IMF is one of such institutes which hold an important position in this changing economic and political environment. In fact, it is helping this process of change by its policies. IMF is responsible for maintaining order and stability in the international monetary system. The performance of international businesses to a large extent depends on the operation of international monetary system. If this system operates properly, then, the risks associated with international business operation reduce significantly. This paper will place its focus on some important issues relating to IMF policies and its scandals since 2007 as IMF activities is closely related to the performance of international businesses. (Hill, 2010) Since 2007, a number of issues relating to IMF activities is worth mentioning

Lupin Marketing Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Lupin Marketing Plan - Essay Example Perceptual map has also been prepared to analysis the competitor’s position in the industry so that Lupin can implement strategies accordingly along with the 4Ps. Finally to measure the effectiveness of the business plan, balance scorecard will be used which will determine the working and effectiveness of the strategies adopted and if any changes to be made in the business plan. Contents 1.Executive Summary 2 Contents 3 2. Introduction 5 3. Situation Analysis 5 4. SWOT Analysis 8 5. Evaluation of Alternative Strategies 10 6. Objectives 11 7. Recommended Strategy 12 8. Economic Evaluation 15 9. Implementation and Control 16 9.1 Managing, measuring and controlling 16 9.2 Contingency plan 17 Reference 18 Bibliography 19 Appendix 20 25 2. Introduction With globalization acting as a permanent as well as irreversible part of the economy and economic life providing the firms with both opportunities as well as challenges to prove themselves and compete in the competing market environm ent. Therefore international expansion has become one of the prominent strategic responses towards global dynamics for organizations. International expansion can be defined as a process through which the multinational enterprise enters and also invest in some foreign country in pursuit of strategic objectives (Luo, 1999, p. 5). The project report highlights the process of internationalization and the benefits involved in the process of going global. The company taken into consideration is Lupin pharmaceuticals which is among the top five pharmaceuticals companies in India. Lupin Pharmaceuticals plans to enter America with its product generic, specialty and API. The reason behind choosing America is that US is the largest market for pharmaceuticals and is also global leader in biopharmaceutical research. The US market provides a free pricing market and a favorable and also regulatory environment (Select USA, n.d). By entering the US market particularly America, Lupin aims to capture the market share and build in brand value in the international market. 3. Situation Analysis 3.1 Business Environment Political Pharmaceutical industry has over the years gathered political focus as well as pressure from the government across the globe and its impact has been highly experienced in US industry. The US pharmaceutical industry tends to operates differently as compared to other national industries. Consumers and patients do not pay for their drugs directly, but receive them through government run healthcare systems. Political factors play a huge role in the regulation of distribution, manufacturing and also sale of the pharmaceutical with regards to safety of its consumer. The Food and Drug Administration is the regulatory body in the US and sets a standard of quality (Castner, Hayes & Shankle, 2007). Economic The US pharmaceutical industry has been for decades among the most profitable and also growing sector encountered by the American economy.

Warranty and Contracts Essay Example for Free

Warranty and Contracts Essay Did the â€Å"I accept† note scribbled on the napkin mailed to Ms. Daughtery create a binding contract between the two parties over the sale of 1965 Corvette Stingray, even though she has not received the acceptance note yet? Yes this is a binding contract between the two parties. While this may be an unconventional acceptance of an offer, it is still binding contract between our client, Mr. deCapo and Ms. Daughtery.  Ms Daughtery sent our client an offer note on February 13, 2008, selling her 1965 Corvette Stingray for the amount of 25,995 plus all title transfer fees. Approximately thirty days later our client Mr. deCapo sent Ms. Daughtery his acceptance of her terms for the sale of her vehicle with the additional cost for title transfer fees. Our client chose accept her terms, via a note on a napkin and sent in the mail. The note sent from Ms. Daughtery is in fact a valid offer of sales to Mr. deCapo. It was a simple offer and only asking the price of the car as well as transfer title fee. Once Mr. deCapo accepted the offer it became a binding contract. Even though Ms. Daughtery has not received the acceptance note from our client, according to the mailbox rule once it went into the mail it became a binding contract. There were no stipulations in Ms. Daughtery’s note to a specific timeline, the thirty days it took our client to respond has no bearing. The performance is the means of acceptance in this case under the mailbox rule. The mailed acceptance is a reasonable form to commit to the offer. If our client was responding with a revocation of his offer this would not be acceptable under the mailbox rule. Especially if it was sent after the acceptance was sent. The offer of acceptance would  arrive first therefore making it a binding contract between the two parties. In the case Adams v. Lindsell, â€Å"The acceptance was mailed on September 5; was not received until September 9. The offeror changed his mind in the meantime and claimed there was no binding contract. But the court held the contract was formed on September 5 when the acceptance was mailed† (www.kentlaw.edu). There is nothing about this process that would cause this to not be a valid binding contract. The note was sent by Ms. Daughtery and the acceptance was sent by our client. The acceptance became valid once the scribble acceptance napkin by our client was put in the mail. Even though Ms. Daughtery has not received the communication from Mr. deCapo it does not change the fact that he has accepted the offer from Ms. Daughtery. There was never a communication of an in-person delivery of the acceptance nor was there a stipulation of an expired time period for the acceptance offer, thus making this a binding contract between our client and Ms. Daughtery. Seller warrants that: (1) Clarice Daughtery (seller) is the sole owner of the vehicle; (2) such vehicle is free of all encumbrances, security interests, and other defenses against seller; (3) the cash price of $25995.00 and the additional amount all transfer title fees; (4) the vehicle will be delivered to and accepted by Leo deCapo (buyer) on day of payment; (5) Leo deCapo is of legal age and legally competent to execute the contract on the date thereof; (6) all disclosures to buyer and other matters in connection with such transaction, are in all respects as required by, and in accordance with, all applicable laws and regulations governing them. (7) Inspection and Acceptance of Vehicle: the buyer will assume cost of the inspection of the vehicle, if the vehicle is not found to be mechanically sound per sellers description; buyer  shall return vehicle and cancel payment of check. Inspection and Acceptance of Vehicle: 4 hours prior to completion of transaction. (8) The seller and/or buyer agree to sign related documents necessary to complete the sale to establish title. Dated: Resources Mailbox rules cases, retrieved on February 5, 2011, www.kentlaw.edu//classes/contracts/Docs/offer_acceptance/​mailbox%​20rule%​20cases.rtf South University Online Lectures, retrieved on February 5, 2011 http://myeclassonline.com Twomey, D. and Jennings, M. (2008) Business Law and Legal Environment 21st ed.

The Illustrated History Essay Example for Free

The Illustrated History Essay the name of Christendom and sanctioned by the Roman Catholic Church against pagans, heretics and Muslims. The campaigns were accordingly religious in nature with the aim of recapturing Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims. Madden though has given us an alternative examination on another possible and logical reason for the occurrence which is the search of wealth. A noble crusader would gladly risk his life and go to war if he believes that the fight is noble, true and greater than them (Madden, p. 13). For many, the sincere love of God could bring men to fight horrible wars A unprovoked Holy War against the Muslims became an acceptable idea when the concept of a unified Christian Kingdom under the Papal guidance evolved. The political concept that incorporated religion and belief was also hatched with another purposeful interest over the surrounding lands of Christ’s birthplace which was considered a valuable relic for the Christians. This was made plausible after the Arab empire under the Umayyads captured North Africa, Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Spain from the foothold of the Byzantine Empire of the 8th century (Setton, 1958). An ideological concept was formed to recapture the lands lost to the Muslims which picked up potency after Spanish Kingdoms began to mobilize knights, armies and mercenaries across Europe to fight against the Muslims. Another idea which formed part of the reasons for the war was the success of the European forces against the Moorish caliphate at Cordoba little Muslim kingdoms arose in the region; they were subdued by the Normans. In effect, Europe was left with a stable class of warriors without a bloody war to fight and had little to do but cause havoc amongst them. 2) Discuss the First Crusade. Who were the principal players? Briefly describe what happened. What were the results of the First Crusade? The First Crusade which started sometime in 1095 was initiated by Alexius I call for help against the Seljuk Turks at the Council of Clermont (Arbor, 2004, p. 224). Under the guise of penance and pardon for sins, Pope Urban II called upon all Christians to fight a war against the Turks. The defeat of two Turkish armies in Dorylaeum and Antioch allowed the crusaders to march to Jerusalem half of their original men, dead or missing. The war ended in 1099 after and assault and massacre of Jerusalem’s population that were notably followed by less notable conquests (Runciman, 1952). Interestingly, the First Crusade was considered of the main reason for the Western power after its first and only capture of Jerusalem. The defeat of the Byzantine Empire in the East in the hands of the Seljuk Turks provided a substantial plan for assault against the Muslims. Although the Byzantine Empire followed a separate Orthodox religion, they did face many enemies including the Seljuks. Madden provided that the Turkish threat allowed the Protestants to flourish (Madden, p. 209). The empire was soon incorporated into the Great Seljuk territory. Alexius I saw a way to work with the Fatimids of Palestine and Egypt and advised the crusader to work with them believing that their sole purpose was to recapture Syria alone. Belatedly they sent their armies only after the crusaders were already in Jerusalem. The First Crusade brought forth a mass and organized violence of anti-Semitism that was existent in Europe for several centuries against the Jews. The German army was led by Gottschalk, Volkmar, and Emicho which proceeded to the Rhine valley and according to Riley-Smith (1986, p. 50) was the first Holocaust. Some preachers enhanced the idea that Jews and Muslims were enemies of Christ and should be converted to Christianity or die as an enemy. In some parts of France and Germany, Jews were blamed for Christ’s crucifixion for their immediate visibility than the Muslims. The Jews were massacred justified by Pope Urban’s speech at Clermont that promised reward from God for killing non-Christians and Muslims (Runciman, 1952). Later in 1096, a band of nobles and knights from different regions of Europe significantly led by Raymond IV of Toulouse, Adhemar of Le Puy; Bohemund of Taranto with his nephew Tancred, the Lorrainers under the brothers Godfrey of Bouillon, Eustace and Baldwin of Boulogne and Count Robert II of Flanders, Robert of Normandy, Stephen, Count of Blois, and Hugh of Vermandois the younger brother of King Philip I of France marched towards Jerusalem in December 1096. Along the way, they encountered machinations led by Byzantine Alexius who provided them with provisions if they return any land to him that was recovered from the Turks. With this in motion, Alexius agreed to send out a Byzantine army to accompany the crusaders through Asia Minor. After a lengthy siege in Nicaea, under Kilij Arslan I the crusaders won yet Alexius feared the crusaders sacking Nicea and destroying its wealth and secretly accepted the surrender of the city. In their march to Dorylaeum, Godfrey broke the Turkish lines and defeated the Turks and looted their camp. This enabled Kilij Arslan to withdraw and the crusaders marched unopposed through Asia Minor towards Antioch. Antioch was so large that the crusaders did not have enough troops to fully surround it. Since Bohemund wanted the city for himself, he bribed an Armenian guard to surrender his tower where the crusaders entered the city and killed most of the inhabitants. A monk psychologically renewed the gist of the fight claiming a Holy Lance was found thus providing for them a sign that they would be victorious. Personal ambition later paved the way for arguments that deviously disclaimed any allegiance to an oath before Alexius I. A plague which killed many and the refusal of the Muslims to give food to the crusaders recounted incidents of cannibalism. Baldwin of Boulogne though went on his own towards the Armenian lands around Euphrates and was adopted as heir by King Thoros, a Greek Orthodox ruler who was soon assassinated and Baldwin became the new ruler. This paved way for the County of Edessa, to be the first of the crusader states in Runciman (1952). The crusaders finally reached Jerusalem in May and put the city in a lengthy siege. Seven days later, the crusaders murdered almost every inhabitant of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon was made Protector of the Holy Sepulchre and refused to wear a crown. He also led an army of an invading Fatimid army at the Battle of Ascalon and was succeeded by his brother, Baldwin of Edessa who became â€Å"King of Jerusalem†. 3) Examine the Second Crusade. Explain the rise of Saladin. Why was he successful against European armies? The Second Crusade was marked as a response to the Fall of Edessa. Pope Eugene III with the European monarchs like Louis VII of France, Conrad III of Germany along with their army marched across Europe. Although they were defeated by the Seljuk Turks, they reached Jerusalem in 1148 an attacked Damascus. Jerusalem was recaptured by the Muslims. What failures the crusaders faced in Jerusalem were compensated by their efforts in converting people to Christianity. The Second Crusade however attracted popular figures such as Eleanor of Aquitaine, the Queen of France, Thierry of Alsace Count of Flanders; Henry, the future Count of Champagne; Louis’ brother Robert I of Dreux; Alphonse I of Toulouse; William II of Nevers; William de Warenne, Earl of Surrey; Hugh VII of Lusignan and numerous other nobles and bishops (Runciman; 1952). This was made possible after St. Bernard preached its importance to the people. However, the relations within the Crusade were poor and were faced with conflict. Complaints of plunder happened along the way while treachery and political aspirations summed up the greedy endeavors of nobles. King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar made Damascus their prime target where they all met in Acre on June 24 attended by Conrad, Otto, Henry II of Austria, future emperor Frederick I Barbarossa , William V of Montferrat of the Holy Roman Empire; Louis, Alphonse’s son Bertrand, Thierry of Alsace, and various other ecclesiastical and secular lords. Jerusalem King Baldwin, Queen Melisende, Patriarch Fulk, Robert of Craon as the Master of the Knights Templar, Raymond du Puy de Provence as Master of the Knights Hospitaller were among those present (Runciman, 1952). No one from Antioch, Tripoli, or the former County of Edessa attended. The crusaders then attacked Damascus from the west. Yet, the Muslims were prepared for the attack after the crusaders managed to fight their way through and chase the defenders back . Damascus had sought help from Saif ad-Din Ghazi I of Aleppo and Nur ad-Din of Mosul, who led an unsuccessful attack on the crusader camp. The Muslim camps also did not trust one another and the crusaders could not agree about who would receive the city if they captured it. Wrongful calculations made some tactical errors in their moves which later forced them to retreat back to Jerusalem. The siege of Damascus was disastrous for Jerusalem and the city was handed over to Nur ad-Din in 1154. Baldwin III seized Ascalon in 1153 and created conflicts with Egypt. Relations with the Byzantine Empire were rare after the disaster of the Second Crusade. In 1171, Saladin, a nephew of one of Nur ad-Dins generals, was proclaimed Sultan of Egypt and united Egypt and Syria which completely surrounded the crusader kingdom. In 1187 Jerusalem surrendered to Saladin. 4) Provide a brief summary of the Third Crusade. How does the rivalry between Phillip II of France and Richard I of England impact the crusading effort? How does the Third Crusade end and what are the consequences? The Third Crusade (c. 1189–1192 in Arbor, P. 224 Timelines) was an attempt by European leaders to regain the Holy Land from Saladin. The Crusade army was destroyed as they laid siege to the city of Tiberias. King Guy and Raynald were brought to Saladin’s tent and Guy was offered a goblet of water. Guy took a drink and Raynald who had not drank water grabbed the goblet from Guy’s hands. Saladin beheaded Raynald for past betrayals and an apparent disrespect for their customs. Saladin had taken Acre and Jerusalem by the end of the year which coincided with Pope Urban III’s death. By 1190, Richard the Lionheart captured Messina and fell out of terms with Philip in Richard’s decision to marry Berengaria of Navarre thereby breaking his long-standing engagement to Philip’s half-sister Alys (Setton, 1958). Philip left Sicily for the Middle East on March 30, 1191, and joined the siege of Acre on May 20. Meanwhile, King Guy who was released from prison by Saladin in 1189 attempted to take command of the Christian forces at Tyre. Conrad of Montferrat who held power there after a successful defense of the city from Muslims made Guy turned his attention to the wealthy port of Acre instead. Receiving aid from Philip’s newly-arrived French army, it was still not enough to subdue Saladin’s force. When Queen Sibylla and her young daughters died, Guy, who was made king by right of marriage tried to retain his crown which was to Sibylla’s half-sister Isabella who later married to Conrad of Montferrat and claimed the kingship in her name. When Richard arrived, Philip and Leopold quarreled over the spoils. The kingship of Jerusalem became a struggle with Philip and Leopold supported Conrad while Richard supporting Guy. Guy would continue to rule with Conrad as the crowned king. Philip and Leopold left the Holy Land in August. Saladin meanwhile was not willing to honor the terms at Acre so Richard had more than 3,000 Muslim prisoners executed on August 20 outside of Acre. On 1191, Richard won the battle against Saladin and was forced to accept Conrad as king of Jerusalem. Before Conrad could be crowned, he was stabbed to death and Richard became a suspect in his death. The arrangement of marrying off Queen Isabella who was pregnant to Henry II of Champagne triggered talks. Saladin suddenly attacked but was recaptured by Richard where they finally agreed that Jerusalem should be left to Muslim rule but allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the city. Richard left the Holy Land and his fleet was struck by a violent storm, carrying his new fiancee Berengaria, and vast amounts of treasure amassed for the crusade (Setton, 1958). Emperor Isaac Dukas Comnenus of Cyprus had held the treasure and despite an agreement to return them to Richard, instead ordered Richard to leave the island. This prompted Richard to conquer the island within days. In December 1192, Richard was arrested and imprisoned by Duke Leopold, for murdering his cousin Conrad of Montferrat and later transferred to the custody of Henry VI. Richard returned to England in 1194 and died after a wound in 1199 at the age of 41 (Setton, 1958). 5) Discuss the Fourth Crusade. Why is it launched? What does the Fourth Crusade accomplish? Often described as the most gainful crusade, the Fourth Crusade was originally designed to conquer Jerusalem through Egypt. Instead, the Eastern Orthodox city of Constantinople proved more alluring. None of the crusaders ever reached the Holy Land and in fact created a wide gap between the Catholics and the Orthodox. Fighting with each other ensued with the Latin Empire facing a number of enemies and the crusade energy dropped as the Latin instilled a sense of betrayal to the Greeks. Their fight for supremacy led to the capture and death of leaders in their own hands and displaying their own lunacy. Ironically, the Greeks thought that the Byzantine civilization centered at the Orthodox faith would be more secure under the Ottomans, and preferred to sacrifice their political freedom in order to preserve the religion. The fourth was the last major crusade directed by the Holy See after bickering led its collapse. 6) Discuss the crusades against other parts of Europe(e. g. the Reconquista, Albigensian, etc. ). What did the Crusaders hope to accomplish? The Pope had authorized a Crusade in Spain and urged the Spaniards to fight the Moors present in their own territory. Many believed though that it was not waged merely for to lessen Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula. It was seen the though rhat most noble births are identified in the relationships between Muslims and Christians. A war on the Iberian Kingdom which was faced with a deep economic crisis would lead to the expulsion of the Jews and confiscate their property. The Albigensian Crusade or Cathar Crusade was initiated in 1209 by the Catholics to eliminate the heretics and the religion practicedby the Cathars of Southern France in an effort to extend the Church’s control southwards. Under Pope Gregory IX, the Inquisition gave unlimited power to suppress the heretics that started a ruthless campaign against the Cathars who were caught and burned. The Cathar strongholds gradually fell which ended the last known Cathar burning in Languedoc in 1321. 7) Discuss the later Crusades. How are the achievements of earlier Crusades dismantled? What new powers emerge? What finally defeats the ethos of the Crusades? The various succeeding Crusades presented a struggle for a supreme cause like the fifth which attempted to formulate a recovery of the Holy Land in 1215 joined by forces from Hungary and Austria that led to the destruction of the Nile in Egypt. The 6th Crusade of Emperor Frederick II met some success that delivered Jerusalem, Nazareth and Bethlehem to the Crusaders for ten years. The succeeding 7th crusade was represented by the Templars that came out a failure. While the 8th failed upon the death of Louis IX. Edward I undertook another expedition and accomplished very little in Syria with after a truce. The fall of Antioch in 1268, Tripoli in 1289 and Acre in 1291 marked the last traces of the Christian rule in Syria (Arbor, p. 224). The acts of barbarism and aggression coupled with the tension between church leader and monarchs became a controversy among the nobles. The brutal acts against one another belied the viewpoint of a defensive war against Muslim aggression as the ravages of war returned more benefits for the aggressor. 8) What are the legacies of the Crusades? How did the Crusades advance Western Christianity’s notion of the Kingdom of God (or did not)? The Crusades favorably for the Western culture dramatized their unity under the influence of the Holy See. The military experience drew out a certainty to protect European castles from outside invasion as massive stone structures were erected to surround the castle. It has also opened the European culture to the world and likewise the Middle East to Europe which for sometime Europe frowned upon. In the essence of knighthood and folkloric tales, the Crusades brought a Romantic zest in an otherwise clamor for power and wealth. Scientific advancement brought forth a new experience to speed the advancement in European universities. Economically, the transport of large armies in an otherwise less traveled road saw an increase in profit as colonies engage in trade that brought in unknown variety of spices, ivory, jade, diamonds, food and other Asian crops. Religiously, had it not been for the Crusades, Spain, Portugal, and the Balkans would be a predominantly Muslim country today and Christianity might have been largely replaced by Islam. The Crusades as a religious and righteous campaign to fight for a just cause against the perceived evil was used to actually justify the ambitious efforts of creating a unified control among nations under the guise of religion. 9) Finally, discuss your general impression of the Crusades. Within the context of the Crusades, how do you reconcile the statement `impelled by the love of God` with the actions of those who participated? The unnecessary deaths of many innocent beings under the hands of the Crusaders could not account and explain the apparent disregard for moral teachings of the bible that positively recommend â€Å"love for one another†. As crimes against another is committed to pave way for a religious war which reeks of control and subjugation of the weak we begin to see the hypocritical machinations to use religion as means to get what a group is most likely salivating salivate over. The participants of the Crusades clearly lack the civil capacity to uphold the rights of another being in order to exercise control over him. Work Cited Page Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades, vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100-1187. London: Cambridge University Press, 1952. Setton, Kenneth. ed. A History of the Crusades, vol. I. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1958. Riley-Smith , Jonathan. The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1986, p. 50. Madden, Thomas F. General Editor. The Crusades: the Illustrated History. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004.

Practice of Insight Meditation: Types, Uses and Benefits

Practice of Insight Meditation: Types, Uses and Benefits The Liberating Practice of Insight Meditation The practice of meditation has many benefits for its practitioners. Apart from enabling the person to experience a sense of freedom from oneself and at the same time oneness with the self, meditation can also be used to govern essential aspects of life. This has led to the development of several forms of meditation, including mindfulness meditation and insight meditation. Among these two most commonly practiced forms of meditation, this module would focus on insight meditation and how the practice of insight meditation can lead to the liberation of the mind while being able to understand things you would have not been able to without its practice. The Meaning of Insight Meditation Insight meditation, also known as VipassanÄ  in Pali or VipaÅ›yanÄ Ã‚  in Sanskrit is a form of meditation practice with Buddhist origins. The word VipassanÄ  in the Pali language can be translated as being able to gain insight or to see clearly. These terms therefore are used to denote that insight meditation does indeed help an individual practicing it gain a deeper sense of knowledge of the reality of things and their true nature. The word VipassanÄ  in the Pali language can be translated as being able to gain insight or to see clearly. VipassanÄ  also has a synonym in the word paccakkha in the same Pali language (pratyaksa in Sanskrit). This term means seeing things before one’s eyes, expressing the perception of things based on experience. Owing from its roots in VipassanÄ , there is a direct experience (or seeing) that leads to the perception of things. This perception is what would allow meditators using VipassanÄ  to be able to derive meaning and knowledge from things, which can be said to be far better since they have experienced it. The practice of insight meditation is also done in cultures other than those originating from Pali and Sanskrit. In Tibet, VipassanÄ  has a counterpart in the word lhagthong. This term is formed through a combination of two shorter words lhag and thong. Lhag means something that is greater, superior or higher; while thong is used to denote the phrase to see, or to view. Therefore, the Tibetan meaning of Insight meditation can be seeing things in a superior way, or being able to look into the essential nature of things. This means that VipassanÄ  can also be expressed as being able to lucidly see things, or view them clearly. The Roots of VipassanÄ  VipassanÄ  has its roots in Buddhist and Yogic meditation practices, but it is not often mentioned in most suttas, although in the discourses and other old documents (most of which dates back to the time of the Buddha) written in the Pali language, terms such as samatha and VipassanÄ  existed. In these old writings, VipassanÄ  is used to denote clear-seeing, but then again the word itself is not directly quoted to be coming from the Buddha’s lips. What the Buddha is quoted to have used is the word jhana when he tells his disciples to meditate, although jhana is not similar to VipassanÄ  or any similar meditation techniques. Readers and scholars of the suttas claim that the suttas were not exactly the origin of the meaning of VipassanÄ  and its practice, although it is through the interpretation of the suttas that gave rise to the meaning of VipassanÄ . These interpretations were based on the debates in the ancient times about the teachings of the Buddha and how they are to be interpreted, classified and put into a hierarchy. This is expressed in the Visuddhimagga. How the Practice of VipassanÄ  Helps Gain Insight The manner in which VipassanÄ  is practiced is different from other Buddhist meditation practices in the modern times. It also has differences from other meditation forms that are not Buddhist in origins. This difference lies on one key aspect of VipassanÄ , and that is because of the inclusion of techniques that aims to develop insight in the individual practicing it. This development of insight includes the practice of one’s ability to contemplate on things, do an introspection in the meaning of these things, observe how his body experiences sensations, be able to meditate analytically and do observations on to this day-to-day life. In Theravada Buddhist practice VipassanÄ  meditaion is done together with the practice of mindfulness of breathing. Also, the impermanence of things and gaining insight into them is another key area of practice. This can be interpreted in the Four Foundations of Mindfulness as they appear in the Satipatthana sutta. These are: The kaya or body (also sometimes interpreted as breath); The vedana or the feeling tone of the person (mostly in terms of sensations); The citta or the consciousness (sometimes interchanged with mind); and The dhamma or the mind objects (phenomena). Moreover, practices leading to development of insight are also used to be able to meditate using VipassanÄ  are cited in the suttas. These consists of being able to practice mindfulness breathing and the capacity to contemplate on impermanence of things. Mindfulness of breathing. To be able to successful practice VipassanÄ , it is essential for the meditator to practice mindfulness of breathing first. This can be done by having the meditator watch his or her breathing patterns and notice them simply for what they are. This means that if he or she notices that the breaths are either long or short, these would be interpreted as such. Contemplation of permanence (Sampajaà ±Ãƒ ±a). This is usually done after the meditator has successfully practice mindfulness of breathing. It is based on the belief that if you are aware of the changes your body goes through as you carry out breathing, then you can understand how the sensations you have in your body are bound to arise and pass away with time. This means that there is impermanence in the bodily sensations. When these things are contemplated on, an awareness on their impermanence and relevance is born, and with it the development of a sense of self that is independent from these things. Stages in the Practice of VipassanÄ  The practice of VipassanÄ  has the aim to allow the meditator to gain different levels of insight into things which happens as a part of an ongoing process. This insight is deemed to be able to help in reaching a stage in which the sensations and feelings experienced in the body (the vedana) slowly dissolves into the consciousness and are replaced by subtle sensory flow throughout the body. This subtle flow of sensations is called the bhaà ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ ¦gÄ nupassanÄ  à ±Ã„ Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ ¡a in the (Pali language, and bhaà ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ ¦gÄ nupaņºyanÄ jà ±Ã„ na in Sanskrit) or the knowledge of dissolution. The final step into this distinct process is the possession of the meditator od mental purification. The meditator practicing VipassanÄ  is also expected to experience decreased levels of attachments (or bodily cravings) and fears or aversion. After this happens, the stage of saà ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ ¦khÄ rupekkhÄ Ãƒ ±Ã„ Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã¢â‚¬ ¡a (in Pali, or saà ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã†â€™skÄ ropekà ¡Ã‚ ¹Ã‚ £Ã„ jà ±Ã„ na in Sanskrit) will be attained, where the meditator would have a strong foundation of knowing that all formations or things are equal. This state of equanimity (or upekkha) can be considered as a state of Brahma in the Theravada Buddhist practice. The Benefits of Insight Meditation VipassanÄ  or insight meditation can help its practitioner in developing the ability to gain insight into things or phenomena and their sense of impermanence. This ability to see this truth is what makes it possible for the meditator to be liberated from such things permanently. The longer the time that a meditator practices insight meditation, the better the improvement that he or she will gain in the perception of his or her existence. This is what most Theravada practitioner refer to as the evolution of knowledge during practice. Coming from a different perspective, the practice of insight meditation also has benefits backed by science and medicine. In a study that were conducted among Western people who were practicing insight meditation, MRI images revealed thicker brain regions in these individuals. These thickened regions of the brain are noted to be those that are related to visual (or pertaining to seeing), auditory (or hearing), somatosensory, and even processing sensations and stimuli interoceptively. These changes are also seen to differ depending on how long the meditator practice and also how long each day they spend practicing insight meditation. The thickening areas of the brain of those practicing insight meditation can be helpful in slowing the progression of cognitive decline especially in those experiencing it as part of the normal aging process. Requirements in the Practice of VipassanÄ  or Insight Meditation Starting any meditation practice is usually a challenge for meditators. It is essential that those who are teaching meditation be able to help bridge the gap between successful practice and the willing meditator. The key lies in having set clear guidelines and explanation of the steps needed to be taken to establish a good foundation for good meditation practice. Doing insight meditation or VipassanÄ  is therefore no exception. The following steps may be helpful in attaining good foundation in insight meditation. Find a special place. Insight meditation would require its practitioners to free their minds from all thoughts that would hinder it. A quiet place where the meditator can focus and do VipassanÄ  undisturbed would be best. This place may be a small corner in the house or inside the meditators room or even in his or her garden. As long as the place is free from all things that can have negative impact in the practice of good meditation, then it is okay. Feel comfortable. Most modern-day meditators come from environments that are high in stress and negative vibes. These things can work adversely if the person would want to practice meditation. Feeling comfortable not only with the environment and setting a special place of meditation is not enough. Being comfortable in themselves is also necessary. This can be achieved through cleaning the body first and the face before the start of meditation, or if there is still time before starting, a warm shower can do wonders in easing stresses and increasing the person’s comfort level. Ensure proper posture. Ideally, meditation does not require its practitioners to assume a certain position, but it would be quite difficult to focus and concentrate in just any position especially for beginning meditators. The suggested position for meditation in most literature would be the Lotus Position, although its modified Half-Lotus can also be used for those who have difficulty assuming the former. However, any position can be used as long as the back of the meditator is straight (or the spine is erect) and the manner of sitting or standing is not strained. This should be done while the person is completely alert of his surroundings, position and even breathing patterns. Just a word of caution, beginning meditators should be discouraged from assuming positions that can make them fall asleep as this would disrupt meditation. Free the mind. This can be started when the meditator seated comfortably and in peace and quiet. Relaxation is one of most important things to bear in mind when trying to free the mind of all the thoughts that has the tendency to intrude on the meditation process. Emptying the mind from all thoughts that have a negative implication on gaining insight is important to successful meditation. Observe breathing patterns. This is usually the first stage of insight meditation. Observing the way how a person breathes increases his or her level of awareness of changes that goes through the body with each breath. While doing this, awareness is gained in the nature of things, while freeing the mind from all things that clutter it. Regulate the breathing until it becomes as natural as it should. Smile. In most beginners practicing insight meditation, the presence of obtrusive thoughts and negative feelings would be unavoidable. Adding a positive feeling tone would help block these thoughts from disrupting the attainment of insight. Smiling is one way to this. When the meditator smiles, there is release of endorphins which can contribute to a general good feeling. When the meditator feels good, he or she becomes less stressed, more relaxed and meditation is better. Meditate. This is done when the meditator focuses on things and their nature in an effort to gain insight and have a clearer view of such things. More about this would be discussed in the succeeding modules. Extend the meditation process to loving kindness. This stage is optional for meditators. Experiencing loving kindness can be attained through eliminating all emotions related to envy, self-pity, anger and hatred towards others. This would allow the meditator to extend kindness, understanding and love for others and in the process extends this love not only to people but to the universe in general. The practice of loving kindness or metta bhavana requires first that the meditator learns to love himself and feel good about himself, while allowing the destruction of the selfish nature of oneself. Like other forms of meditation, this might be difficult to do at first, but continuous practice would help in mastering it. More Tips into the Practice of Insight Meditation Since the successful practice of insight meditation requires time and practice, it is important for anyone teaching or guiding meditators to stress the need for patience when the expected results of the meditators are not seen in the first few times meditation is tried. Also, since the ability to focus and free the mind is not easy on the first dew tries, ensuring that the environment is conducive enough is a must. The use of soft lights, mellow sounds (like the sounds of waves or raindrops, soft wind blowing, and nature) and music purposed for meditation can be used to create a warm, relaxing environment. Ambient noises such as the sound of machines being operated and phone ringing should be avoided. If possible, unplugging these devices is recommended. Keeping aromatherapy candles burning can also aid in relaxing and calming the mind of the meditator. Moreover, keeping candles burning can also aid in focusing since the flame from the candles can be used as objects of reference when freeing the mind and allowing the meditator to detach himself from his or her environment. The candle and its flame can also be used symbolically to denote the light of the doctrine from which insight meditation is based. In coaching the meditator on the practice of Insight Meditation, the teacher must also keep in mind that the tone of his or her voice and the manner in which the lectures are delivered matter greatly. For one to be able to be effective in teaching a practice such as meditation, he or she should have first hand knowledge and experience on its effects to oneself. Influencing the meditator positively should be one of the goals, as well as exuding the relative peace and calm that insight meditation can do to its practitioner. And lastly, it is also important that any one who wants to guide or teach meditation to be free from all forms of dogmatic and judgmental thoughts to avoid passing these on to the practitioner. Remember that meditation, especially VipassanÄ  teaches deeper sense of understanding, clarity on the nature of things, and most especially being at peace not only with oneself but with the universe as well. References: Henepola Gunaratana, Mindfulness in plain English, Wisdom Publications What is Theravada Buddhism?. Access to Insight. Access to Insight. Bikkhu Bodhi, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha Ajahn Brahm, Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditators Handbook. Wisdom Publications, 2006 Thanissaro Bhikkhu, One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice Glickman, Marshall (1998), Beyond the Breath: Extraordinary Mindfulness Through Whole-Body Vipassana Meditation, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 1-58290-043-4 Behaviour Management in Schools | Theories Behaviour Management in Schools | Theories Professional Issues: Learning Behavior Abstract This essay explores ways in which children can learn to behave appropriately in school, and so in society. The main aim was to critically analyse strategies which schools and individuals (teachers, support staff and children) use to manage behavior and to consider how behavior management might (or might not) lead to children learning generally appropriate behavior. For this purpose, information was gathered through a case-study report and through analysis of materials presented in books, course materials and professional publications. The results of this study show aspects of value in the many different models of behavior management currently in use. They also reveal several key deficiencies. More importantly, the need for an integrated approach (involving school, home and the wider community) when applying behavioral policy is emphasised; these conclusions were supported by evidence from case-studies and from my own teaching experience. Reflecting wider concerns in society about the behavior of young people, the DFES has identified behavior management as one of its key policy areas. Each head-teacher is expected to have a system in place which: Promotes self-discipline and proper regard for authority among students Encourages good behavior and respect for others Ensures students standard of behavior is acceptable Regulates students conduct (DFES, 2007) Such a system, however, is necessarily only â€Å"part of the story†. Pupils’ behavior is influenced by a myriad of factors, including their interactions with staff, parents and wider society, their own personalities, their health problems and their learning environment (Fuller et al, 1994). Croll et.al (1985) stated that â€Å"the majority of teachers consider home background to be the most significant factor in problem behavior†. School policy cannot and does not aim to control all of these factors, rather it aims to provide a framework in which teachers, parents, support staff and students can work to eliminate â€Å"problem† behavior and promote positive relationships. There is great debate in the literature about the methods and final aims of achieving acceptable behavior standards in schools. Initially at least, behavior management is a simple requirement of effective teaching, in that behavior that disrupts the learning process conflicts with the basic aims of the teacher. How far, and how effectively, school discipline affects pupils’ behavior in wider society is unclear – and some researchers have argued that societal discipline is de facto the responsibility of all areas of society, and not just the education system. This paper critically examines a variety of different behavioral theories and policies, taken from the literature and from my own experience in teaching, and attempts to summarise the evidence supporting and undermining each case. Analysis in each case is based on two main criteria: Does the policy provide effective behavior control for classroom management? Does the policy influence extra-curricular behavior? This work is supported by reference to a case-study and to other relevant classroom experience, and concludes with a summary of the information gained. Section 1: Behavior in Schools: Theory and Practice This area of education is extensively referenced in the literature, but there are few summary documents that compare and contrast different approaches. This section provides critical analysis of some current policies and theories, and highlights the general importance of the results of each analysis. For clarity, work is divided in to that which focuses on behavior management, and that which focuses on developing responsibility. Policies that focus on Behavior Management -modifying behavior through regulation and discipline. The Work of B F Skinner (1974, 1976) The psychologist B F Skinner is credited with creating the first comprehensive theory of educational behavior management, based on the rewarding of positive behavior and the punishment of negative behavior. Skinner based his work on his broader theory that human behavior is determined by â€Å"positive reinforcement†, and adopted this idea to account for the more controlled environment of the classroom. Fundamentally, Skinner’s approach requires a set of clear and agreed classroom rules, and an associated rewards and punishments system. Breaking of a rule is recognised by application of a punishment, and particularly good work is reinforced by a reward. The nature of rewards and punishments varies with school, age group and teacher, but the former can include awarding stickers, merit slips and small prizes and the latter can include the imposition of extra work, detentions and so on. Psychologically, Skinner’s system is a form of ‘operant conditioning’, in which the teacher gives almost constant feedback to students in order to help them modify their behavior step-by-step. This theory (and derived theories and policies) account for a large proportion of currently operating behavior management systems in schools. Bigge (1976) and others have recorded observations that seem to support the use of Skinner’s system, and in my experience, the rewarding of positive behavior generally encourages subsequent good behavior in the classroom. I observed a classic example of this in a Midland’s secondary school, where a child (B) had difficulty in completing work in his mathematics lessons, and as a result, was frequently disruptive and ill-mannered. The classroom teacher reached an agreement with B that, if he concentrated on his work, asked for assistance when he needed it and did not misbehave, he would be awarded a merit slip for each successful lesson. Because of previous behavioral problems, B had never before been awarded merits, and adopted an enthusiastic approach to managing his behavior in order to achieve this. It will be noted that in this example, the teacher did not strictly follow Skinner’s formula in that B’s negative behavior was not punished. One problem linked with the negative reinforcement approach is that it can lead pupils to associate negativity with particular classroom situations – especially when misbehavior stems from deeper problems and is not simply malicious. The case study in section 2 provides a clear example of this occurring. The classroom teacher must use their judgement to decide on the appropriate course of action in individual cases. Particular caution in applying negative feedback is necessary when faced with attention-seeking behavior, where it may feed a child’s desire for attention and therefore be counter-productive. During a recent science lesson, a pupil (C) attempted to interrupt a class discussion that I was leading with irrelevant and attention-seeking remarks. As these remarks were not loud or rude, I decided to simply ignore this behavior, and concentrate on positively reinforcing the cooperative responses of other pupils. Within a very short time, C realised that her behavior was not going to be commented on, and joined in the discussion – allowing me to positively reinforce her contributions. The source material for this paper, â€Å"Behavior Management in Primary Classrooms†, comments on the use of ‘planned ignoring’ in primary schools: â€Å"This technique works for minimal off-task behavior that is designed to get teachers attention, such as rocking, tapping a p encil, annoying hand waving, handling objects, combing hair, etc†. I believe that positive reinforcement is generally more successful that negative deterrence, as the positive approach rewards a pupil’s own choice to behave, whereas the negative response is often seen as the teacher’s imposition of ‘rules’ on a pupil. This conclusion is reinforced by Wragg (1993), and by â€Å"behavior management†, where it is stated â€Å"It is important to underline that an over-emphasis on negative behavior destroys constructive atmosphere in the classroom†. That having been said, there are instances where negative reinforcement is necessary: punishment for bullying and direct rudeness and disruption can act as a deterrent to other members of the class, as well as establishing the teacher’s authority. Several authors (Tauber, 1988 and Gunter, 1997) defend the careful use of negative reinforcement, particularly in the case of students with specific learning disabilities. In terms of classroom management, then, Skinner’s work can be useful and practical if applied intelligently to some situations. But how far does it go towards positively modifying a pupil’s behavior in society? By encouraging positive behavior (i.e. in response to a prescribed code) and making pupils aware that disobedience will result in punishment, the policy can be said to introduce the idea of community responsibility. Aspects of positive reinforcement can be found in wider society, which strengthens Skinner’s original theory. However, the simplistic system necessitated by classroom needs does not directly compare with anything that children will encounter in wider life: positive actions are not always rewarded, and negative ones sometimes go unpunished. The main problem with adopting this policy is that it makes little or no allowance for pupil input, which makes it seem distant from their everyday lives. The reward and punishment system becomes an integral part of the school routine, but is â€Å"left at the school gate† in the same way that uniform rules are not seen as applying outside of the classroom. b) Developments of Skinner’s work. Many refinements to the original theory have been suggested in professional literature. Some of the most important are summarised below: -Butcher (2001) assessed Skinner’s contribution to education, and discussed its integration in to other, more recent work. She states that â€Å"some contemporary educators might object to using rewards and punishments to shape behavior†, but asserts that, with the support of teachers who are willing to assess the individual discipline situation, such an approach is still useful. -Jack (1996) investigated the implementation of a number of different classroom management strategies (including Skinner’s), and found that differences in teachers’ approaches had a defining effect on the success of a strategy. -Emmer (1980) investigated the importance of the first few weeks of the school year in establishing a positive classroom management stance, and highlighted â€Å"the central role of rule setting† in successful teaching: this aspect of Skinner’s theory had not previously been comprehensively reviewed. -BATPAC (Wheldall et.al, 1985), or the â€Å"Behavioral Approach to Teaching Primary Aged Children† is a model developed from Skinner’s work by researchers at Birmingham University. I have had experience of implementing this scheme, as my LEA (Nottinghamshire) adopted it as a supporting training measure between 2001 and 2004. The guidance leaflet for the course states that BATPAC (and the secondary equivalent, BATSAC) form â€Å"a rather behaviorist approach, emphasizing the now-familiar Praise and Reward approach of positive teaching, intended for use by trained tutors only†(NCC, 2004). BATPAC is intended to be a tool for experienced teachers to further their classroom management skills, and not a stand-alone solution. This is probably due to the fact that it does not provide solutions for dealing with anything but mildly bad behavior, although it does provide an updated version of Skinners Behaviorist Approach that makes use of internet an other ICT resources. -â€Å"Building a Better-Behaved School† (Galvin et.al, 1989) is another model that builds on behaviorist beginnings. The authors state that the impact of a good behavior policy â€Å"largely comes through being clear, teaching appropriate behavior and giving positive feedback when pupils are behaving appropriately. It is an extension of Skinner in that it focuses on actually teaching positive behavior, instead of just rewarding it. Galvin’s model is the first that attempts to deal with the pupil’s need to learn about appropriate behavior, and therefore starts to meet the second of the criteria mentioned in this paper’s introduction, â€Å"influencing extra-curricula behavior†. However, there is little feedback available as to the reception that this model has received, and further work is necessary before it can be recommended as a positive development. This small selection of published work is an indicator of the extent and success that Behavior Modification models have met with in recent years. However, there are a number of criticisms that can be made of Skinner’s original work, and therefore of the models derived from it. The chief criticism is that the behaviorist model assumes that pupils act as â€Å"units†; that is, that they will all respond to punishment or praise in the same way. This is obviously not the case, and is an important flaw; hence the earlier comments about teachers needing to adopt the system to meet individual needs. The problem with this is that individual teachers also vary in how they apply behavior policy, which can lead to inconsistencies within a school environment. There is little else as destructive to a co-ordinated policy as inconsistency, as neither pupils or staff have a firm base mark for determining what is acceptable or unacceptable behavior. During my first year of teaching, I ran a mathematics support class as part of a primary school’s numeracy strategy. After two weeks, I was asked to meet with a class teacher, and on discussing our approaches to behavior management, it transpired that the class teacher insisted on silence during written work, whilst I encouraged on-task talk as a form of peer-led learning. It was obviously unfair to the class in question that the definition of â€Å"acceptable behavior† changed between classrooms, but such variation is a simple reality in everyday schooling. Thus, whilst the work of Skinner and other behaviorists is a useful part of an integrated classroom management strategy, it cannot be considered comprehensive. Because of its limitations, other researchers have developed alternative approaches to behavior policy, with a focus on the broader personal development of the student rather than on responding to behavior ‘as it happens’. The next section discusses some of these alternative approaches. Policies that focus on Developing Responsibility -developing a system of behavior through experience and personal growth. Assertive Management One of the oldest alternative approaches that developed from the Behavior Management model is the Assertive Management theory advocated by the Canters (1976). Whilst accepting the idea of positive and negative reinforcement as tools for teaching, this theory advocates â€Å"teaching pupils to accept the consequences of their actions in a form of rewards and punishments†. In other words, teachers reinforce their use of behavior management by explaining why a particular behavior is ‘good’ or ‘bad’. A school psychology handbook sums up the Canter’s approach as â€Å" based on the findings that effective teachers are assertive teachers who can express their classroom expectations clearly and firmly and take appropriate action should pupils not meet expectations†. (Dosani, 2007). The major development that assertive management incorporates is the provision of a stated link between a pupil’s behavior and its consequences – a vital step towards encouraging young people to develop a responsible approach to behavior in wider society. As with previous theories, however, individual teachers will vary in their application of this behavior management tool, which could lead to inconsistencies within a school. A further development, examined in the next paragraph, attempts to remedy this by proposing an assertive management policy that is school-wide. Positive Assertive Management This approach is similar in practice to assertive management, but with the important difference that it involves pupils in the decision-making process: the school behavior policy is discussed, agreed and modified in response to pupil’s ideas. The benefits of this approach are twofold: firstly, pupils gain a clear understanding of the aims of the school behavior policy by linking rules to reasons. Secondly, and more broadly, Positive Assertive Management imitates wider society’s use of ‘rules’: the people they affect have an input in to their formation and implementation. Tassell (2001) states that, under this system, Pupils have to learn that when they have freedom to choose what they want to do, they have to accept responsibility for that choice and the ensuing consequences. Positive Assertive Management can perhaps best be summed up by stating that, whereas earlier theories taught children how to behave, this theory teaches them why to behave, and thus is more likely to be applicable in their wider lives. In terms of staff and timetable requirements, this behavior policy is more demanding than alternatives, and it requires a co-ordinated approach on behalf of the school management team. There is also the question of the extent to which pupils should be allowed to influence school policy and discipline: this will obviously vary with the age and maturity of the pupils involved. This first section has not been an attempt to cover all the many possible models of classroom behavior management in use today. Rather, it has provided an overview of two of the main theoretical approaches, and has investigated developments therein. The next section looks at the implementation of behavior management policies on a practical level, and again assesses their potential to influence pupils’ wider behavior. Section 2: Empirical Experience and Evidence As stated in the introduction, every LEA and each school is expected to maintain a behavior policy, designed to integrate all staff in to a common approach to classroom management. The key aspects of such a policy are: Decision-making: The head-teacher is ultimately responsible for the policy, and thus will maintain overall control. Heads of subject and the senior management / governing team will also have a prominent role to play. There must also be scope for feedback from staff, pupils and parents. Rules and Sanctions: These must be defined in advance so that both teachers and pupils know where they stand. Role delegation: This includes defining the role of teachers and assistants in a learning situation, and also describing the responsibilities of wider staff. As Rogers (2000) noted: Effective behavior management is essential to the smooth running of a school and in the creation of an environment where everyones rights and responsibilities are addressed. A balance between fundamental rights and responsibilities is at the heart of behavior management. a) Example of a Classroom management policy In my current school (a large secondary in the Midlands), the head-teacher encourages development and discussion of behavior policy by nominating a different member of the senior management team to lead â€Å"classroom management† every year, whilst still maintaining overall control to ensure continuity. New members of staff are given a training session that defines their roles within the policy. Individual classroom teachers are allowed to decide the extent to which teaching assistants and trainees will assist them in this area, and provide a written statement to the head explaining their decision. On a basic level, behavior in each lesson is monitored by a system of ‘Rewards’ ( R’s) and ‘Consequences’ (C’s). Each student has a diary with a small space for every lesson of the school year. If the lesson has progressed well, they are permitted to write a small ‘R’ in the relevant space. In the case of misbehavior, there is a defined system of consequences, graded for severity, which will be similarly recorded: C: Recorded in the diary discussed with form teacher later C1: 5-minute break detention. C2: 30-minute lunchtime detention C3: After school detention: parents informed C4: Withdrawal from lessons, parents informed and invited to school. Posters detailing the â€Å"R’s and C’s† system are prominently displayed in all classrooms. The school also adopts a â€Å"positive reinforcement† system to recognise good behavior, with a school-wide merits system, linked to a reward scheme (e.g. 10 merits in a term = a free school trip). Although merely a brief introduction, this summary gives an idea of how aspects of many different theories, as well as the ideas of many relevant staff, can be collated in to a school behavior policy. Example of classroom behavior management This paper was written with reference to a case-study, involving a Child (A) with behavioral problems. A shows attention-seeking behavior in the classroom environment, which observation suggests may stem from difficulties with the understanding of written and spoken instructions, and feelings of insecurity owing to these difficulties. The study details the response of the teaching assistant supporting A, who uses a combination of techniques (notably positive reinforcement and planned ignoring) to manage difficult situations. Of particular interest are the assistant’s comments regarding the general school behavior policy. The negative reinforcement applied by the class teacher in response to A’s behavior is seen as destructive rather than constructive, a conclusion supported by Wragg (1993) The failure of communication within the school and between the school and parents is also recognised; child A’s behavior problems are reoccurring because of a lack of parental support: in such a situation, school policy does not modify behavior, merely punishes it. The case study is a useful illustration of the point that a management system can achieve no long-term changes in pupil behavior without the support of other staff and parents. The writer concludes that â€Å"The majority [of parents in this school] show little responsibility towards developing good behavior and positive attitudes in their children, making the effective management of behavior extremely difficult†. Summary It is unlikely that there will ever be a â€Å"universal† school behavior management policy, owing to the vast differences that individuals (both staff and students) bring to the system. However, some degree of common theoretical underpinning is necessary in a nationalised education system, and the work of behaviorists and other classroom management researchers provides a number of potentially useful tools for school policy-makers. The work of Skinner, and of subsequent researchers, has provided useful background information pertinent to classroom management, but practical experience and training are a necessary part of successfully implementing any policy or model. Conclusions Given the brevity of this study, any conclusions reached can not be said to be conclusive, rather they are indicative of broad trends. From the research carried out during this paper’s completion, it can be concluded that: Behavior management is an integrated process, and must involve input from all relevant groups if it is to be successful. The extent to which schools can influence the wider behavior of their pupils depends on the degree of internal management consistency, the level of pupil involvement and the cooperation of parents. Theoretical behavior models require intelligent adaptation by practitioners to ensure that behavior management policies produce the best possible results for all concerned. Fundamentally, successful behavior management relies on the recognition that pupils are individuals, and must be treated as such. It is the responsibility of the classroom teacher and their support staff to intelligently apply their schools’ behavior policy to the benefit of all in their learning environment. â€Å"More important than the curriculum is the question of the methods of teaching and the spirit in which the teaching is given† – Bertrand Russell. Bibliography Bigge, M (1976): â€Å"Learning theories for teachers†.  Harper Row. Chapters 1 and 2. Blandford, S (1998 ): â€Å"Managing Discipline in Schools†Ã‚  Routledge Falmer, Chapter 8. Butcher, K (2001): â€Å"Exploring the foundations of middle-school classroom management†. Childhood Education, 78 (2), 84 – 90. Canter and Canter (1976): â€Å"Assertive Discipline†.  Canter Associates (Publisher), 2001. Cohen, J [et.al] (1993): â€Å"Handbook of School-Based Interventions: Resolving Student Problems and Promoting Healthy Educational Environments†.  Jossey Bass Wiley, Page 3. Croll, P [et.al] (1985): â€Å"One in Five: The Assessment and Incidence of Special Educational Needs†. DFES (2007): â€Å"Behavior and Discipline in Schools†. Retrieved on 10/07/07 from: www.parentscentre.gov.uk/behaviouranddiscipline/behaviouranddisciplineinschool Dosani, S (2007): â€Å"Managing a Challenging Class†.  Buckinghamshire Schools Educational Psychology Service, Vol 5, Page 1. Emmer, E (1980):â€Å"Effective Classroom Management at the Beginning of the School Year†. 80 (5), 219 – 231. Fuller, B [et.al] (1994): â€Å"Raising School Effects whilst ignoring culture?†.  Review of Educational Research, 64 (1), 119 – 157. Galvin, P [et.al] (1990): â€Å"Building a Better-Behaved School†. Logman. Gunter, P (1997): â€Å"Negative Reinforcement in Classrooms†.  Teacher Education and Special Education, 20 (3), 249 – 264. Jack, S (1996): â€Å"An analysis of the relationship of teachers reported use of classroom management strategies on types of classroom interactions†.  Journal of Behavioral Education, 6 (1), 67 – 87. NCC Course Handout (2004): â€Å"Nottinghamshire Behavior Support Plan, 2001 – 2004†.  Appendix A-2. Rathvon, N (2003):â€Å"Effective School Interventions: Strategies for Enhancing Academic Achievement and Social Competence†.  Brunner-Routledge. Rockwell, S (2006):â€Å"You can’t make me! From Chaos to Cooperation in the Elementary Classroom†. Sage Publications, Chapter 1. Skinner, B (1974): â€Å"About Behaviorism†.  Random House. Tassell, 2001 â€Å"Classroom Management†. Retrieved on 10/07/07 from:  http://www.brains.org/classroom_management.htm Tauber, R (1988): â€Å"Overcoming Misunderstanding about the Concept of Negative Reinforcement.†. Teaching of Psychology, 15 (3), 152 – 3. Wheldall, K [et.al] (1985): â€Å"The Behavioral approach to teaching package (BATPACK)†. Positive Products. Wolfgang, C (2001):â€Å"Solving discipline and classroom management problems†.  John Wiley Sons. Wragg, E (1993): â€Å"Primary Teaching Skills†. Pages 18 – 37 and 58 – 88.  Routledge.

Essay --

I am certainly in no means becoming a scientist but I do like keeping up with what is happening in the world science wise as well as other things. I’ve seen how the media and politics have blurred the lines between what information is backed up by evidence and what is not. In Sagan’s essay I found that some of his tools to detecting ‘baloney’ are tools that I see myself use on a day to day basis without thinking or in school when I’m writing papers that are using logos, pathos, or ethos. I think everyone should try and practice Carl Sagan’s tools in baloney detection, as it would benefit you as a person to have substantial information with solid evidence. I agree that it is important to have independent confirmation of the ‘facts’ as Sagan said. I use this method most of the time at work; I work in health care and deal a lot with sending documentation to doctors. I have come across multiple times that a doctor’s office will say they never received a document and when I’m questioned about it, I always show the confirmation sheet that shows that the fax went through to the doctor’s office. If I only had my word that I sent it, I don’t have the evidence to back up my calm and it becomes a he said she said situation. Another good example having independent confirmation is say you’re having an argument with someone and they are just denouncing the evidence you found from performing a test, look into getting another set of results done from the same test by another person to show that not only have you come up with the same results but another person has also found the same evidence of your claims in their results. Another tool Sagan mentions that I believe is very good to practice is encouraging substantive debates. I don’t kn... ...ts that show that Greece is one of the most seismically active countries in the world. Be it having an argument in politics, science, or simple reasoning; these tools for detecting baloney are very useful and important. You don’t want to be that moron at a party just spewing ignorant nonsense just because it was what you read in a tabloid magazine that states that the world is going to end in the next few days by a massive asteroid hitting the Earth; you also don’t want to be the person caught believing what that moron is saying to be true without having good facts. I don’t always know when I use these tools but I know that how I think most of the time falls along the guidelines of these tools. I rather be properly informed of what I am learning or I rather be persuaded in a different view of something as long as it has substantial evidence to back up its claim. Essay -- I am certainly in no means becoming a scientist but I do like keeping up with what is happening in the world science wise as well as other things. I’ve seen how the media and politics have blurred the lines between what information is backed up by evidence and what is not. In Sagan’s essay I found that some of his tools to detecting ‘baloney’ are tools that I see myself use on a day to day basis without thinking or in school when I’m writing papers that are using logos, pathos, or ethos. I think everyone should try and practice Carl Sagan’s tools in baloney detection, as it would benefit you as a person to have substantial information with solid evidence. I agree that it is important to have independent confirmation of the ‘facts’ as Sagan said. I use this method most of the time at work; I work in health care and deal a lot with sending documentation to doctors. I have come across multiple times that a doctor’s office will say they never received a document and when I’m questioned about it, I always show the confirmation sheet that shows that the fax went through to the doctor’s office. If I only had my word that I sent it, I don’t have the evidence to back up my calm and it becomes a he said she said situation. Another good example having independent confirmation is say you’re having an argument with someone and they are just denouncing the evidence you found from performing a test, look into getting another set of results done from the same test by another person to show that not only have you come up with the same results but another person has also found the same evidence of your claims in their results. Another tool Sagan mentions that I believe is very good to practice is encouraging substantive debates. I don’t kn... ...ts that show that Greece is one of the most seismically active countries in the world. Be it having an argument in politics, science, or simple reasoning; these tools for detecting baloney are very useful and important. You don’t want to be that moron at a party just spewing ignorant nonsense just because it was what you read in a tabloid magazine that states that the world is going to end in the next few days by a massive asteroid hitting the Earth; you also don’t want to be the person caught believing what that moron is saying to be true without having good facts. I don’t always know when I use these tools but I know that how I think most of the time falls along the guidelines of these tools. I rather be properly informed of what I am learning or I rather be persuaded in a different view of something as long as it has substantial evidence to back up its claim.